Landolt-Brnstein Group VI
: Astronomy and Astrophysics
Volume 2 

Astronomy and Astrophysics 

Subvolume C Interstellar Matter, Galaxy, Universe 
Introductory material 
5 
Special types of stars 1

5.1
 - 5.5See Vol. 2B 
5.6 
Compact objects 1

5.6.1 
Neutron stars 1

5.6.2 
Radiopulsars 10

5.6.3 
Pulsating X-ray sources 24

5.6.4 
X-ray bursters 30

5.6.5 
Black holes 32

5.7 
X-ray and gamma-ray sources 33

5.7.1 
X-ray sources 33

5.7.2 
gamma-ray sources 40

6 
Double stars and star clusters (See Vol. 2B) 
7 
Interstellar matter 45

7.1 
Phenomena of the generally distributed medium 45

7.1.1 
General references 45

7.1.2 
Interstellar extinction 45

7.1.3 
Interstellar polarization of starlight 49

7.1.4 
Scattering of starlight by interstellar dust 52

7.1.5 
Interstellar absorption lines and bands in stellar spectra 55

7.1.6 
Radio line emission and absorption 61

7.1.7 
Continuous radio emission of interstellar origin: nonthermal background 64

7.1.8 
UV and visual interstellar radiation field 66

7.2 
Cool interstellar clouds 67

7.2.1 
General references 67

7.2.2 
Dark nebulae and globules 67

7.2.3 
Statistical description of interstellar cloud structure 69

7.2.4 
Molecular clouds 72

7.3 
HII regions 88

7.3.1 
General references 88

7.3.2 
Catalogues, surveys, statistical data 88

7.3.3 
Classification 91

7.3.4 
The individual HII regions 91

7.4 
Physics of interstellar dust 106

7.5 
Physics of the interstellar gas 115

7.5.1 
List of symbols and definitions 115

7.5.2 
Components of the interstellar gas 115

7.5.3 
Particle processes 117

7.5.4 
Phases, bulk properties and processes of the interstellar gas 124

7.6 
Cosmic rays 134

7.7 
Interstellar magnetic field 143

8 
Our Galaxy 147

8.1 
Positions, motions, parallaxes of stars 147

8.1.1 
Star positions 147

8.1.2 
Proper motions 155

8.1.3 
Radial velocities 159

8.1.4 
Parallaxes 163

8.2 
The nearest stars 168

8.3 
Structure of the Galaxy 175

8.3.1 
Apparent distribution of galactic objects on the celestial sphere 175

8.3.2 
The local star field 180

8.3.3 
Large-scale distribution of the stars 189

8.3.4 
Large-scale distribution of interstellar matter 196

8.3.5 
The galactic center 201

8.3.6 
Properties of the Galaxy as a whole 207

8.4 
Kinematies and dynamics 208

8.4.0 
Notation 208

8.4.1 
Kinematics 209

8.4.2 
Dynamics 219

9 
Galaxies and universe 232

9.1 
General information and integral properties of galaxies 232

9.1.1 
Catalogues, atlases, positions 232

9.1.2 
Apparent integral properties of galaxies 237

9.1.3 
Qualitative classification of galaxies 240

9.1.4 
Intrinsic integral properties of galaxies 247

9.2 
Internal structure and dynamics of galaxies 254

9.2.1 
Stellar and gaseous content of normal galaxies 254

9.2.2 
The ellipticity of galaxies 256

9.2.3 
Luminosity distribution 257

9.2.4 
Spiral structure 260

9.2.5 
Radio radiation of normal galaxies 261

9.2.6 
Rotation, kinematics, dynamics 263

9.3 
Galaxies with special peculiarities; pairs, groups and clusters of galaxies 271

9.3.1 
Galaxies with special peculiarities 271

9.3.2 
Pairs of galaxies 272

9.3.3 
Groups of galaxies 274

9.3.4 
Clusters of galaxies 277

9.3.5 
Superclusters 278


9.4 Evolution of galaxies 288 
9.4.1 Formation of galaxies 288 
9.4.2 Evolution of galaxies 289 
9.4.3 References for 9.4.1 and 9.4.2 290 
9.4.4 Star-formation activity in normal galaxies 292 
9.5 Quasars and active galactic nuclei 300 
9.5.0 Abbreviations 300 
9.5.1 Definition and classification 300 
9.5.2 Continuum radiation 305 
9.5.3 Spectral lines 307 
9.5.4 Theoretical models for AGNs 311 
9.6 Extragalactic radio sources 315 
9.6.1 Observational methods 315 
9.6.2 Surveys 315 
9.6.3 Basic relations 323 
9.6.4 Extended sources 334 
9.6.5 Compact sources 339 
9.6.6 Interpretation of extended and compact radio sources 396 
9.7 Cosmology 346 
9.7.1 List of symbols 346 
9.7.2 Friedmann cosmologies 346 
9.7.3 Observations supporting basic assumptions 351 
9.7.4 Redshifts 354 
9.7.5 The determination of the Hubble constant H0 356 
9.7.6 The determination of the deceleration constant q0 358 
9.7.7 Constituents of the universe 361 
9.7.8 The time scale of the universe 362 
9.7.9 Other cosmologies 365 
Comprehensive index 417 
