ISBN: 3540669345
TITLE: Grading Knowledge
AUTHOR: Staab, Steffen
TOC:

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Problems in Understanding Degree Expressions 3
1.2 General Approach 4
1.3 Overview 5
2. ParseTalk - The System Context 7
2.1 An Architecture for Text Knowledge Extraction 8
2.2 Syntactic Analysis 8
2.2.1 Dependency Grammar 9
2.2.2 The ParseTalk Parser 12
2.3 Conceptual System 14
2.3.1 Description Logics 15
2.3.2 Knowledge Base 20
2.3.3 Semantic System 23
2.4 Referring and Relating 25
2.4.1 Centering 26
2.4.2 Relation Path Patterns and Metonymy 27
2.4.3 An Example Text 28
3. Lexical Semantics of Degree Expressions 31
3.1 Scales 31
3.1.1 Critique on Ontological Models for Degree Expressions 32
3.1.2 New Ontological Entities 33
3.2 Gradable Adjectives 36
3.2.1 Classification of Adjectives 36
3.2.2 Figurative Language 37
3.2.3 Multiple Word Senses 40
3.2.4 Nominative vs. Normative Use 41
3.2.5 Two Types of Comparison 42
3.3 Non-adjectival Degree Expressions 44
3.4 Summary 45
4. Representation and Inferences 47
4.1 Requirements on Modeling Degree Relations 47
4.1.1 Linguistic Stipulations 48
4.1.2 Stipulations from Vagueness 48
4.1.3 Stipulations on Inferences 51
4.1.4 The Challenge: Functions 52
4.2 Binary Relations 53
4.2.1 Representation 53
4.2.2 Inferencing 57
4.2.3 Soundness and Incompleteness 59
4.2.4 Computational Complexity 61
4.3 Non-binary Relations 63
4.3.1 TCSPs and Allen's Calculus 65
4.3.2 From Binary to Non-binary Relations 66
4.3.3 A Formal Model of Generalized Temporal Networks (GTNs) 68
4.3.4 Determining Consistency 72
4.3.5 Computing the Minimal Network 78
4.3.6 Scaling by Abstractions 81
4.3.7 Scaling by Generalizations 84
4.4 Related Work 88
4.4.1 Related Work on Representing and Inferencing with Degree Expressions 88
4.4.2 Related Work on Temporal and Spatial Reasoning 94
4.5 Conclusion on Representation and Inferences 96
5. Relative Comparisons 99
5.1 Basic Model for Interpreting Relative Comparatives 101
5.1.1 Comparative Interpretation as Semantic Copying 101
5.1.2 Core Algorithm 103
5.1.3 An Example of Semantic Interpretation 105
5.2 Extension to Textual Phenomena 106
5.2.1 Comparatives with Omitted Complements 108
5.2.2 An Example for Omitted Complements 109
5.2.3 Metonymies in the Complement 110
5.2.4 Metonymic Entities in the Omitted Complement 111
5.2.5 An Example for Metonymic Entities in the Omitted Complement 112
5.3 Theoretical and Empirical Coverage 114
5.4 Related Work 116
5.4.1 Generative Linguistics 116
5.4.2 Cognitive Foundations 121
5.4.3 Computational Approaches 122
5.5 Conclusion on Relative Comparisons 126
6. Absolute Comparisons 129
6.1 A Cognitive Framework for Absolute Comparisons 130
6.2 Representing Comparison Classes 132
6.3 Knowledge about Intercorrelations 134
6.4 Computing Comparison Classes 139
6.4.1 The Algorithm 139
6.4.2 A Sample Computation 141
6.5 Empirical Evaluation 144
6.6 Related Work 145
6.7 Conclusion on Absolute Comparisons 147
7. Integration and Conclusion 149
7.1 Integration 149
7.1.1 (Comparison) Relations and Intercorrelations Revisited 150
7.1.2 Drawing the Lines between the Two Comparison Paradigms 152
7.1.3 Relative Comparisons Meet Absolute Comparisons 154
7.1.4 Comparison Classes Meet Inferences 155
7.2 Further Research Issues 157
7.2.1 Pragmatics 157
7.2.2 Relative Comparisons and Analogy 159
7.2.3 Further Norms of Expectation 159
7.3 Conclusion 160
A. List of Conventions 165
B. The Entity-Relationship Model 169
C. Auxiliary Proofs 171
C.1 Proof of Optimization Lemma 171
C.2 Proof of Clipping Lemma 172
C.3 Efficiency of Constraint Propagation 173
Bibliography 175
END
