ISBN: 3-540-64370-2
TITLE: Cluster Beam Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials
AUTHOR: Milani, Paolo; Iannotta, Salvatore
TOC:

1. Introduction 1 
2. Molecular Beams and Cluster Nucleation 5 
2.1 Molecular Beams 5 
2.1.1 Continuous Effusive Beams 6 
2.1.2 Continuous Supersonic Beams 9 
2.1.3 Pulsed Beams 18 
2.2 Nucleation and Aggregation Processes 20 
2.2.1 Classical Theory 20 
2.2.2 Homogeneous Nucleation by Monomer Addition 21 
2.2.3 Homogeneous Nucleation by Aggregation 26 
2.2.4 Nucleation of Clusters in Beams 27 
2.2.5 Semi-empirical Approach to Clustering in Free Jets 30 
3. Cluster Sources 35 
3.1 Vaporization Methods 35 
3.1.1 Joule Heating 36 
3.1.2 Plasma Generation for Cluster Production 42 
3.1.3 Laser Vaporization 42 
3.1.4 Glow and Arc Discharges 47 
3.2 Continuous Sources 52 
3.2.1 Effusive Joule-Heated Gas Aggregation Sources 52 
3.2.2 Magnetron Plasma Sources 61 
3.2.3 Supersonic Sources 62 
3.3 Pulsed Sources 70 
3.3.1 Pulsed Valves 70 
3.3.2 Laser Vaporization Sources 77 
3.3.3 Arc Pulsed Sources 83 
4. Characterization and Manipulation of Cluster Beams 91 
4.1 Mass Spectrometry 91 
4.1.1 Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry 91 
4.1.2 Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry 96 
4.1.3 Retarding Potential Mass Spectrometry 107 
4.2 Detection Methods 109 
4.2.1 Ionization of Clusters 109 
4.2.2 Charged Cluster Detection 110 
4.2.3 Cluster Beam Characterization 117 
4.3 Cluster Selection and Manipulation 120 
4.3.1 Size and Energy Selection 120 
4.3.2 Quadrupole Filter 122 
4.3.3 Separation of Gas Mixtures in Supersonic Beams 123 
5. Thin Film Deposition and Surface Modification 
by Cluster Beams 125 
5.1 Kinetic Energy Regimes 128 
5.2 Diffusion and Coalescence of Clusters on Surfaces 133 
5.3 Low-Energy Deposition 142 
5.3.1 Cluster Networks and Porous Films 143 
5.3.2 Composite Nanocrystalline Materials 154 
5.4 High-Energy Deposition 155 
5.4.1 Implantation, Sputtering, Etching 155 
5.4.2 Thin Film Formation 160 
6. Outlook and Perspectives 167 
6.1 Cluster Beam Processing of Surfaces 168 
6.2 Nanostructured Materials Synthesis 171 
6.3 Perspectives 172 
Appendix 175 
References 179 
END
