ISBN: 3540655980
TITLE: Hypertrophic Reservoirs for Wastewater Storage and Reuse
AUTHOR: Juanico, Marcelo; Dor, Inka (Eds.)
Toc:

Part I Limnology and Technology 3
1 Research and Development Policy 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Background Data 3
1.2.1 Water Scarcity and Wastewater Reuse 3
1.2.2 Wastewater Reclamation Plan 4
1.2.3 Surface Wastewater Reservoirs 5
1.3 R&D Support 5
1.3.1 The R&D Policy 5
1.3.2 Overview of the Ongoing R&D Programme 6
1.4 Results Dissemination 9
1.5 Discussion 9
References 10
2 Wastewater 13
2.1 Storage and Reuse for Irrigation in Israel 13
2.2 Wastewater Treatment 14
2.2.1 Pretreatment 14
2.2.2 Treatment: Conventional Processes 14
2.2.3 Advanced Treatment 15
2.3 Sewage Treatment and Reuse in Israel 15
2.4 Main Water Reclamation Projects in Israel 18
2.5 Effect of Irrigation with Treated Sewage Effluent an Soil, Crops and Environment 19
References 20
3 Health and Treatment Requirements for Wastewater Irrigation 23
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 The Development of Wastewater Recycling and Reuse 23
3.2.1 Early Major Wastewater Irrigation Projects 23
3.2.2 Present Status of Interest in Wastewater Recycling and Reuse 24
3.3 Public Health Risks Associated with Wastewater Irrigation 26
3.3.1 Pathogenic Microorganisms in Wastewater 26
3.3.2 Survival of Pathogens in the Environment 26
3.3.3 Proposed Model to Predict the Relative Effectiveness of Pathogens in Causing Infections Through Wastewater Irrigation 27
3.4 Evaluation of the Epidemiological Evidence of Human Health Effects Associated with Wastewater Irrigation 28
3.4.1 Early Microbial Guidelines for Wastewater Irrigation Lack Epidemiological Basis 28
3.4.2 Population Groups Consuming Vegetables and Salad Crops Irrigated with Raw Wastewater 29
3.4.3 Health Effects among Sewage Farm Workers 31
3.4.4 Health Effects among Population Groups Residing Near Wastewater-Irrigated Fields 32
3.4.5 Reduction in Negative Health Effects by Wastewater Treatment 32
3.4.6 Implications for Developing Countries 33
3.5 Evaluating Health Guidelines for Recycling Wastewater in Agriculture 34
3.5.1 Scientific, Historical, and Social Influences 34
3.5.2 The Engelberg Report and the New WHO Guidelines 36
3.5.3 The USEPA/USAID Recommended Wastewater Reuse Guidelines 37
3.5.4 A Risk Assessment/Cost-Effectiveness Approach for Comparing the Various Guidelines 37
3.6 Reduction of Health Risks by Various Agronomic Technics 38
3.6.1 Restricting Crops 39
3.6.2 Modification and Control of Irrigation Techniques 39
3.7 Appropriate Low-Cost Methods of Wastewater Treatment for Irrigation 40
3.7.1 Goals of Wastewater Treatment for Recycling and Reuse in Irrigation 40
3.7.2 Interseasonal Wastewater Stabilisation/Storage Reservoirs 42
3.7.3 Advantages of Centrally Managed, Engineered Environmental Interventions 44
References 44
4 Empirical Data for Monitoring and Control 47
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Materials and Methods 47
4.3 Results 49
4.4 Discussion 57
4.5 Conclusions 59
Acknowledgements 60
References 60
5 Process Design and Operation 61
5.1 Introduction 61
5.1.1 Water Demand for Irrigation in Israel and the Hydrological Cycle in the Reservoirs 61
5.1.2 Basic Concepts in Designing Wastewater Reservoirs 61

5.2 Basic Operational Regimes and Water Demand Curves for Irrigation 63

5.3 The 'Old' Continuous-Flow Single Reservoirs 65
5.3.1 Volume and Depth 65
5.3.2 Outlet and Inlet Location 66
5.3.3 The Hydraulics of Continuous-Flow Wastewater Reservoirs as Reactors 66
5.3.4 MRT and PFE in Continuous-Flow Wastewater Reservoirs 69
5.3.5 Calculating Surface Organic Loading 69
5.3.6 Performance and Limitations of the Continuous-Flow Reservoirs 71
5.3.7 The Removal of Coliforms 73
5.4 The New Sequential Batch Reservoirs 74
5.4.1 Example I. Batch Operation During Winter 74
5.4.2 Example II. Batch Operation During Spring 75
5.4.3 Several Reservoirs Working in Sequential Batch 76
5.5 Maximum Organic Loading 78
5.5.1 Mean Surface Organic Loading 78
5.5.2 Increasing the Surface Organic Loading 79
5.5.3 Shocks of High Organic Loading 80
5.6 The Tools for Design 80
5.7 Control and Monitoring 80
5.7.1 Sampling 81
5.7 2 Data Analysis 81
References 82
6 Hydraulic Age Distribution 85
6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Concepts: The Hydraulic Age Distribution 87
6.2.1 PFE: Percentage of Fresh Effluents 87
6.3 The Leslie Matrix Model 90
6.3.1 Background 90
6.3.2 The Leslie Matrix Model Applied to Age Class Structure of Effluents in a Reactor 91
6.3.3 Age Distribution in Different Types of Reactors 95
6.3.4 Computer Algorithms 98
6.4 A Case Study: The Geta'ot Reservoir in 1989 100
6.5 Conclusions 102
6.6 Notation 102
Acknowledgements 103
References 103
7 Modelling 105
7.1 Introduction 105
7.1.1 Milestones in the Development of Models of Aquatic Ecosystems 105
7.2 Models of Stabilisation Reservoirs 106
7.2.1 Models for Predicting Maximal Permitted Dissolved BOD in Stabilisation Reservoirs 106
7.2.2 Model for the Prediction of the Accumulation of Organic Matter in the Sediment of Stabilisation Reservoirs 109
7.2.3 Statistical models for Predicting BOD and COD Removal as a Function of the Operational Regime 110
7.2.4 Model of Hydraulic Age Distribution in Stabilisation Reservoirs 112
7.3 Simulation Model of Stabilisation Reservoirs 113
7.3.1 Introduction 113
7.3.2 Assumptions 113
7.3.3 Forcing Functions 116
7.3.4 State Variables 118
7.3.5 The Logical Structure of the Model and the Computer Programme 126
7 3.6 Results 126
7.4 Summary and Conclusions 139
7.5 Notation 141
References 143
8 Sediment-Water Interrelationship 145
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Accumulation of Nutrients in Bottom Soils 145
8.3 Release of Nutrients from the Bottom 146
8.4 Nutrient Balance of Reservoirs 148
8.5 Modelling of Soil Bottom Processes 150
References 150
9 Specific Construction Details 153
9.1 Earthen Reservoirs 153
9.2 The Spillway 154
9.3 The Floating Outlet Pipe 154
9.3.1 Elements of the Outlet Pipe 154
9.3.2 Details of the Design 155
9.3.3 Details of the Joints 157
9.4 The Road at the Top of the Embankment 158
10 Nitrogen and Nitrification 159
10.1 Introduction 159
10.2 Ammonia in Wastewater Reservoirs 160
10.2.1 General Aspects 160
10.2.2 Inhibition by Ammonia of Algal Photosynthesis and Growth 160
10.3 Nitrifying Bacteria in Reservoirs 163
10.3.1 Abundance of Nitrifying Bacteria 163
10.3.2 Detection of Nitrifying Bacteria in Wastewater Reservoirs 163
10.3.3 Nitrifying Bacteria in Anaerobic Environments 166
10.4 Unbalanced Nitrification of Ammonia 167
10.4.1 Nitrification of Ammonia in Wastewater Reservoirs 167
10.5 Summary 169
Acknowledgements 170
References 171
11 Phytoplankton 173
11.1 Introduction 173
11.2 Wastewater Reservoir as an Algal Habitat 173
11.3 Composition and Seasonality of Phytoplankton 174
11.4 Algae-Bacteria Relationships 177
References 179
12 Fauna 181
12.1 Introduction 181
12.2 Limnological Parameters 181
12.3 Faunal Limits and Definitions 182
12.4 Faunal Composition and Frequency 182
12.5 Aquatic Birds 185
12.6 Spatial and Temporal Distribution 185
12.7 Food Chains 188
12.8 The Effect of Grazing 188
12.9 The Reservoirs as an Environmental Opportunity 189
12.10 Unwanted Effects of the Fauna of the Hypertrophic Reservoirs 190
12.11 Fish Introduction for Manipulative Purposes 190
12.12 Faunistic Succession and Typology of the Hypertrophic Reservoirs 191
12.13 Conclusions 191
Acknowledgements 192
References 192
13 Odorous Compound 195
13.1 Introduction 195
13.2 Materials and Methods 196
13.2.1 Sampling at the Na'an Reservoir 196
13.2.2 Materials 197
13.2.3 Analytical Methods 197
13.3 Results and Discussion 198
13.4 Conclusions 203
Acknowledgements 203
References 203
14 Degradation of Organosynthetic Pollutants 205
14.1 Introduction 205
14.2 Results and Discussion 206
14.2.1 Organic Pollutants Identified 206
14.2.2 Reservoirs in the Judean Hills 208
14.2.3 Na'an Reservoir 212
14.2.4 Givat Brenner Wastewater Treatment Facility 212
14.2.5 Distribution of Organosynthetic Chemicals in Agricultural Soils Irrigated with Effluents from the Reservoirs 213
14.2.6 Degradation Mechanisms 214
14.3 Conclusions 216
Acknowledgements 216
References 217
15 Trace Metals 219
15.1 Introduction 219
15.2 Materials and Methods 219
15.2.1 The Studied Reservoirs and Water Balance 219
15.2.2 Sampling 220
15.2.3 Analytical Methods 221
15.2.4 Potential Sources of Errors 222
15.3 Results and Discussion 222
15.3.1 Operation of the Reservoirs and Water Balance 222
15.3.2 Concentration of Metals in Inflow and Outflow 224
15.3.3 Input/Output Amounts 225
15.3.4 Losses by Seepage 227
15.3.5 Removal and Metal Budget 228
15.3.6 Sedimentation Rates 228
15.3.7 Sedimentation Quantities 230
15.3.8 Parameters Affecting the Removal of Metals in the Reservoirs 230
15.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 231
Acknowledgements 232
References 232
16 The Clogging Capacity of Effluents 233
16.1 Introduction 233
16.2 Drip Irrigation 233
16.3 Measurements of the Clogging Capacity of Effluents an Screen Filters 234
16.3.1 Filterability Index and Filter Specific Resistance 234
16.3.2 "ATMMIN" and "ATMILIT" 234
16.3.3 Clogging Time 236
16.4 Causes for Screen Filter Clogging 236
16.4.1 Causes Related to Filter Operation 238
16.4.2 Causes Related to the Effluent 238
16.5 Reservoir Management Alternatives 239
16.5.1 The Biological Approach 239
16.5.2 The Chemical Approach 241
16.5.3 The Operational Approach 243
16.6 Concluding Comments 244
References 245
17 Particle Characterization and Filtration 247
17.1 Introduction 247
17.2 Particle Characterization 247
17.3 Mechanical Filtration 253
17.4 Granular Media Filtration 256
17.5 General Conclusions 260
References 261
18 Satellite Remote Sensing of Water Quality 263
18.1 Introduction 263
18.2 SPOT Images of Wastewater Reservoirs 264
18.2.1 Deep Wastewater Reservoirs 264
18.2.2 Ground Truth 264
18.2.3 Reservoir Classification 264
18.2.4 Radiance Values 265
18.2.5 Chromatic Coordinates 266
18.2.6 Atmospheric Effects 268
18.3 The Spectral Radiance Model 269
18.3.1 The Optical Properties of Hypertrophic Wastewater Reservoirs 269
18.3.2 Model Structure and Inputs 269
18.3.3 The Optical Properties of the Water Constituents 271
18.3.4 Model Results 272
18.4 Principal Components Analysis 275
18.4.1 Principal Components 275
18.4.2 Spectral Interpretation of the PCA 276
18.4.3 Interpretation of Model Results by Principal Components 277
18.5 Summary and. Conclusions 280
References 281
19 Experiences Outside Israel 283
19.1 Independent Experience 284
19.1.1 Canada and the United States 284
19.1.2 Spain 287
19.1.3 China 290
19.1.4 Germany 291
19.1.5 Italy 292
19.2 Wastewater Reservoirs Designed Abroad by Israeli Consultants 293
19.2.1 Chile - The Santiago Poniente Experimental Treatment Plant 293
19.2.2 Morocco - The Ben Slimane System 294
19.2.3 India - Wastewater Reservoirs in Gujarat State 295
References 300
Part II Case Studies 303
20 The Na'an Reservoir 305
20.1 Introduction 305
20.2 Materials and Methods 306
20.2.1 Structure and Operation of the Reservoir 306
20.2.2 Field' Sarnpling and Measurements 307
20.2.3 Laboratory Analyses 308
20.3 Results 308
20.4 Discussion 313
Acknowledgements 325
References 325
21 The Geta'ot Reservoir 327
21.1 The Physical Environment 327
21.1.1 Introduction 327
21.1.2 Methods 327
21.1.3 Results and Discussion 330
21.1.4 Conclusions 338
21.2 Changes in Water Quality 339
21.2.1 Introduction 339
21.2.2 Methods 339
21.2.3 Results and Discussion 339
21.3 Conclusions 351
Acknowledgements 351
References 352
22 The Ma'aleh HaKishon Reservoir 355
22.1 Introduction 355
22.2 Description of the Reservoir 356
22.3 Operation of the Reservoir 356
22.4 The Biological Cycle in the Reservoir 357
22.5 Removal of Organic Material 357
22.6 Removal of Heavy Metals and Detergents 358
22.7 Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium 358
22.8 Suspended Solids 359
22.9 Enteric Microorganisms 359
22.10 Discussion 360
References 360
23 The Negev Desert Reservoirs 361
23.1 Introduction 361
23.2 The Treatment Plant 361
23.3 The Soil-Aquifer Treatment (SAT) 362
23.4 Reservoirs of Reclaimed Water 363
23.5 Growth of Algae in the Reservoirs 364
23.6 Control of Algae by Grazing Fish 364
23.7 Control of Algae by Lowering Water Level and Temporary Desiccation of the Reservoir Walls 366
References 367
24 The Enan Reservoir 369
24.1 Introduction 369
24.2 Methods 370
24.2.1 Study Site 370
24.2.2 Sampling Methods 372
24.3 Results 372
24.3.1 Water Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen 372
24.3.2 Phytoplankton and Primary Productivity 376
24.3.3 Effect of Impoundment an Water Quality 378
24.3.4 Fish Farming 380
24.4 Discussion 382
Acknowledgements 385
Index 385
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