ISBN: 3540659994
TITLE: Fluid Mechanics for Marine Ecologists
AUTHOR: Massel, Stanislaw Ryszard
TOC:

Part I: Basic Fluid Mechanics 1
1 Introducing Sea Water 3
1.1 Water on Earth 3
1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Sea Water 4
1.2.1 Sea Water Density and Related Measures 4
1.2.2 Sea Water Viscosity 7
1.2.3 Surface Tension 9
1.2.4 Inorganic Salts 11
1.2.5 Dissolved Gases 12
1.2.6 Concentration of Suspended Particles and Yellow Substances 13
2 Water at Rest and in Motion 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.1.1 Coordinates System 17
2.2 Water at Rest: Hydrostatics 19
2.2.1 Pressure Distribution in Water 19
2.2.2 Buoyancy 21
2.2.3 Stability and Metacentric Height 23
2.3 Water in Motion: Hydrodynamics 24
2.3.1 Methods of the Study 24
2.3.2 Steady and Unsteady Flow 26
2.3.3 Rotational and Irrotational Flows 27
2.3.4 Mass-Conservation Equation 27
2.3.5 The Momentum Principle and Bernoulli Equation 29
2.4 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 32
2.4.1 A Brief Overview 32
2.4.2 Reynolds Number 33
2.4.3 Mean and Fluctuating Components of Turbulent Flow 36
2.5 Boundary Layer Flows 39
2.5.1 Motivation 39
2.5.2 Non-Slip Condition and Boundary Layer Thickness 40
2.5.3 Laminar Boundary Layer 41
2.5.4 Turbulent Boundary Layer 43
2.6 Forces Imposed by Fluid Flow 48
2.6.1 Introduction 48
2.6.2 Drag Force 50
2.6.3 Lift Force 59
2.6.4 Inertia Force 63
2.6.5 Bodies Falling in Fluid 67
2.7 Laminar and Turbulent Flows in Ducts 69
2.7.1 Introduction 69
2.7.2 Laminar Flow in Ducts 70
2.7.3 Turbulent Flow in Ducts 73
Part II: Oceanic Hydrodynamic Processes 77
3 An Introduction to Surface Waves 79
3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Nature of Wave Motion 79
3.3 Types of Waves 80
3.4 Basic Wave Characteristics 82
3.4.1 Definition of Surface Wave Dimensions 82
3.4.2 Orbital Motion of Water Particles 84
3.4.3 Phase and Group Velocities 86
3.5 Wind-Generated Waves 89
3.5.1 How Does Wind Generate Waves? 89
3.5.2 Fetch and Duration Limited Wave Growth 90
3.5.3 Parameters and Functions of Wind-Induced Waves 94
3.5.4 Geography of Waves 99
3.6 Tsunamis 101
3.7 Seiches 103
3.8 Storm Surges 105
3.9 Rossby Waves 106
4 How to Determine Wave Parameters 107
4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Wave Parameters Based on Small Amplitude Wave Theory 108
4.2.1 Introductory Remarks 108
4.2.2 Practical Calculation Formulas for Constant Water Depth 109
4.2.3 Higher Order Wave Theories 120
4.2.4 Wave Shoaling and Refraction 124
4.2.5 Wave Diffraction 128
4.2.6 Wave Breaking 129
4.2.7 Boundary Layer Induced by Waves 136
4.2.8 Forces Induced by Waves 140
4.3 Statistical and Spectral Properties of Waves 142
4.3.1 A Brief Orientation 142
4.3.2 Outline of Waves Statistics 143
4.3.3 Spectral Properties of Wind-Induced Waves 147
5 Tides 155
5.1 Introduction 155
5.2 Tide Generating Forces and Equilibrium Theory 156
5.2.1 The Earth-Moon System 156
5.2.2 The Earth-Sun System 166
5.3 Dynamic Model of Tides 169
5.3.1 Brief Overall 169
5.3.2 Coriolis Acceleration 171
5.3.3 Dynamic Behaviour of Tides 174
5.4 Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides 178
5.4.1 Prediction of Tides 178
5.4.2 Tidal Tables 180
6 Internal Waves 183
6.1 Introduction and Useful Definitions 183
6.2 Stability of Water Masses 185
6.3 Internal Waves in Two-Layer Ocean 188
6.4 Internal Waves when the Density Varies Continuously with Depth 191
6.4.1 Modal Structure of Internal Waves 191
6.4.2 Topographic Effects 196
6.4.3 Surface Effects 198
6.4.4 Microstructure 200
7 Ocean Currents 201
7.1 Introduction 201
7.2 Wind Patterns on Earth 202
7.2.1 Forces Driving the Wind 202
7.2.2 Geostrophic Wind 203
7.2.3 Major Surface Wind Patterns 204
7.2.4 Storms and Cyclones 206
7.3 Wind-Driven Surface and Near-Surface Currents 208
7.3.1 Forces Driving Ocean Currents 208
7.3.2 Geostrophic Flow 210
7.3.3 General Pattern of Wind-Driven Ocean Circulation 212
7.3.4 Types of Surface Current Flows 213
7.3.5 Currents in Non-Homogeneous Ocean 220
7.4 Thermohaline Circulation 221
7.5 Modelling of Oceanic General Circulation 222
7.6 El Nio and Southern Oscillation 224
7.6.1 Introduction 224
7.6.2 Physical Mechanisms Linking El Nio and Southern Oscillation Phenomena 226
7.6.3 El Nio of 1982-1983 229
7.6.4 Observing and Forecasting El Nio 231
7.7 Continental Shelf Flow 234
7.7.1 Overview of Continental Shelf Waters 234
7.7.2 Western Boundary Currents 235
7.7.3 Eastern Boundary Currents and Coastal Upwelling 237
7.7.4 Other Examples of Upwelling 243
7.8 Coastal Water Movement 244
7.8.1 An Overview of Coastal Flows 244
7.8.2 Circulation in the Surf Zone 246
8 Transport in the Oceans and Coastal Zone 253
8.1 Introduction 253
8.2 Basics of Diffusion 254
8.2.1 Randomness of Diffusion 254
8.2.2 Random Walks 255
8.2.3 Fick's Equation of Diffusion 257
8.3 Concentration of Matter for Molecular and Turbulent Diffusion 259
8.3.1 Concentration of Matter for Molecular Diffusion 259
8.3.2 Concentration of Matter for Turbulent Diffusion 263
8.3.3 Shear Flow Dispersion 267
8.3.4 Some Workable Solutions of the Diffusion Equations 271
8.4 Diffusion and Mixing in the Ocean 281
8.4.1 Introduction 281
8.4.2 Diffusion of Tracers in the Ocean 282
8.4.3 Diffusion in a Continuously Stratified Ocean 283
8.4.4 Double Diffusion and Salt Fingers 284
8.5 Diffusion and Mixing in Estuaries 286
8.5.1 Introduction and Classification 286
8.5.2 Some Simple Mixing Concepts 288
8.5.3 Salt-Wedge Estuary 290
8.5.4 Dynamics of Partly Mixed Estuaries 292
8.5.5 Dynamics of a Well-Mixed Estuary 296
8.6 Sediment Transport in the Coastal Zone 297
8.6.1 Longshore Sediment Transport 299
8.6.2 Sediment Budget and Depth Changes 302
9 Experimental Methods in Fluid Mechanics 305
9.1 Introduction 305
9.2 Field and Laboratory Measurement Techniques 306
9.2.1 Temperature 306
9.2.2 Salinity 307
9.2.3 Sea Level Measurement 307
9.2.4 Ocean Current Measurements 307
9.2.5 Wave Measurements 312
9.3 Remote Sensing Techniques 314
9.3.1 Introduction 314
9.3.2 Surface Waves Observed by Satellites 315
9.3.3 Tides Observed by Satellites 317
9.3.4 Ocean Circulation Observed by Satellites 317
9.3.5 Sea Surface Temperature Measured by Satellites 318
9.4 Similitude and Dimensional Analysis 319
9.4.1 Introduction 319
9.4.2 Dimensional Analysis 320
9.4.3 Similitude Principles 324
9.5 Spectral and Statistical Analysis of Time Series 326
9.5.1 Data Sampling 326
9.5.2 Standardization of Data, Trend Removal and Filtering 328
9.5.3 Calculation of Frequency Spectra 329
9.5.4 Calculation of Statistical Characteristics of Waves 334
Part III: Marine Environment and Ecology 335
10 Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials 337
10.1 Introduction 337
10.2 Definition of Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials 338
10.2.1 Stress and Strain 338
10.2.2 Shear-Stress and Strain 340
10.2.3 Viscoelasticity 342
10.2.4 Bending 343
10.2.5 Stiffness and Strength 346
10.2.6 Overview of Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials 347
10.3 The Density of Marine Organisms 351
11 Locomotion of Marine Animals 353
11.1 Introduction 353
11.2 Buoyancy in Marine Animals 353
11.3 Mechanics of Animal Swimming 357
11.3.1 Introduction 357
11.3.2 Classification of Fish Swimming Modes 358
11.3.3 Kinematics, Speed and Size 359
11.3.4 Transmission of Forces Between Fish and Water 363
11.3.5 Jet Propulsion Mechanism 367
11.3.6 Swimming in Low Reynolds Number Environment 369
11.4 Swimming Strategy 372
12 Internal Flows in Marine Organisms 377
12.1 Introduction 377
12.2 Flow in Pipes Revisited 377
12.3 Blood as Fluid and its Circulation in Marine Organisms 383
12.4 Propagation of the Pressure Pulse 385
12.5 Oxygen Supply in Marine Animals 388
13 Transport and Mixing in Coastal Ecosystems 391
13.1 Introduction 391
13.2 Transport and Mixing in Estuaries 392
13.2.1 A Brief Orientation 392
13.2.2 Sediment Transport in Estuaries 392
13.2.3 Dispersion in Non-Vegetated and Vegetated Estuaries 397
13.2.4 Influence of Mixing on Primary Production 401
13.3 Dispersion of River Plumes 408
13.4 Larval Settlement and External Fertilization 411
13.4.1 Settlement of Larvae 411
13.4.2 External Fertilization 414
13.4.3 Dispersion of Coral Eggs Following Mass Coral Spawning 415
14 Tides and Waves on Vegetated Coasts 417
14.1 Introduction 417
14.2 Tides and Waves in Mangrove Forests 418
14.2.1 Tide-Induced Water Motion in Mangrove Forests 418
14.2.2 Storm or Cyclone-Induced Waves in Mangrove Forests 419
14.2.3 Sedimentation in Mangrove Forests 425
14.3 Tidal Flats 426
14.3.1 Tidal and Wave Motion on Tidal Flats 426
14.3.2 Salinity and Sediment Transport on Tidal Flats 427
14.4 Waves at Coral Reefs 428
14.4.1 A Brief Overview 428
14.4.2 Wave Transformation and Breaking on Coral Reefs 430
14.4.3 Water Circulation on Coral Reefs 433
14.4.4 Impact of Waves on Physical Degradation of Reefs 434
14.5 Seaweeds and Seagrasses 446
14.5.1 Seaweeds 446
14.5.2 Seagrasses 451
14.6 Coastal Fluid Muds 451
15 Vertical Structure of Ocean Waters and Biological Productivity 453
15.1 Introduction 453
15.2 Upwelling and Biological Production 454
15.2.1 General Overview 454
15.2.2 Physical Factors and Primary Production in Coastal Up-welling Ecosystems 455
15.3 Oceanic Fronts and Biological Productivity 459
15.4 Plankton Patchiness in Upper Ocean 460
15.5 Phytoplankton Concentration in Stratified Ocean 461
15.6 Tidal Mixing and Phytoplankton Production 463
A Symbols and Notations 467
B International System of Units 473
B.1 Introduction 473
B.2 Base Units 474
B.2.1 Length 474
B.2.2 Time 474
B.2.3 Mass 475
B.2.4 Temperature 475
B.3 Derived Units 475
B.3.1 Frequency 475
B.3.2 Velocity 475
B.3.3 Acceleration 476
B.3.4 Discharge 476
B.3.5 Force 476
B.3.6 Pressure 477
B.3.7 Shear Stress and Shear Force 477
B.3.8 Energy and Power 478
B.4 Conversion Factors Between BG and SI Units 478
C Useful Theoretical Approaches and Formulas 479
C.1 Vector Notations Used in the Book 479
C.2 Derivation of Mass Conservation Equation 483
C.3 Derivation of the Equations of Fluid Motion 484
C.3.1 Governing Equations 484
C.3.2 Navier-Stokes Equation Solution for Sphere Moving in Viscous Fluid 488
C.4 Summary of Basic Irrotational Flow Properties 491
C.5 Formulas of Small Amplitude Wave Theory 497
C.5.1 Unknown Quantities and Laplace Equation 497
C.5.2 Boundary Conditions 498
C.5.3 Wave Type Solution of the Laplace Equation 499
C.5.4 Wave Parameters Based on Small Amplitude Wave Theory 502
C.6 Circular, Hyperbolic and Complex Functions 507
C.7 Evaluation of Integral (8.60) 511
D Computer Programs Set ApD 513
D.1 Programs Installation 513
D.2 Brief Program Descriptions 513
D.2.1 Program D.11: Calculation of Sea Water Density According to UNESCO Formula 513
D.2.2 Program D.31: Surface Displacement for Fixed Location or at Given Time Instant 514
D.2.3 Program D.41: Calculation of Wavelength (or Wave Period) and Phase and Group Velocities 514
D.2.4 Program D.42: Surface Wave Profiles Resulting from Various Wave Theories 515
D.2.5 Program D.43: Vertical Profiles of Horizontal Orbital Velocity Under Wave Crest and Wave Trough 515
D.2.6 Program D.44: Vertical Profiles of Wave-Induced Pressure Under Wave Crest and Trough 515
D.2.7 Program D.45: Wave Shoaling and Refraction (Parallel Bottom Contours) 516
D.2.8 Program D.46: Harmonic Analysis of a Given Time Series f(t) 516
D.2.9 Program D.47: Spectral Analysis of Time Series (FFT Method) 517
D.2.10 Program D.81: Instantaneous Release of Substance in Uniform Flow (One-Dimensional Case) 517
D.2.11 Program D.82: Steady Release of Substance in Uniform Flow 518
D.2.12 Program D.83: Simulation of Substance Diffusion by Monte Carlo Method 518
References 519
Author Index 541
Subject Index 551
Colour Plates 561
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