ISBN: 3-540-65464-X
TITLE: Space Stations
AUTHOR: Messerschmid, Ernst; Bertrand, Reinhold
TOC:

1 Introduction 1
2 History and Current Development 7
2.1 Visions, Concepts and Early Designs of Space Stations (18651957) 7
2.2 US Space Station Studies (19571985) and Skylab 11
2.3 Russian Space Stations: Salyut (19711991) and Mir (Development until 1994) 25
2.4 The European Space Laboratory Spacelab and the US Module Spacehab 30
2.4.1 The European Spacelab Program 30
2.4.2 The US Spacehab Module 38
2.5 From Mir to the International Space Station ISS (19942004) 39
2.5.1 Phase 1 (19941998): Further Expansion and Operation of Mir 41
2.5.2 Phase 2 (19982000): Start of Assembly of the International Space Station 46
2.5.3 Phase 3 (20002004): Operation of the International Space Station and Further Expansion 48
2.5.4 General Description of the International Space Station 50
2.6 Space Station Comparison 53
3 Orbital Environment 57
3.1 Gravitational Fields 58
3.1.1 Gravitational Field at Large Distances from a Central Body 58
3.1.2 Gravitational Field Near a Central Body 59
3.2 Magnetic Fields 60
3.2.1 The Earth's Magnetic Field 60
3.2.2 The Magnetic Field of the Sun 64
3.3 Radioactive Radiation 65
3.3.1 Fundamentals 65
3.3.2 Low-Energy Particles of Solar Origin: Solar Wind 65
3.3.3 High-Energy Particles of Solar Origin: Solar Flares 67
3.3.4 Particles of Galactic Origin 67
3.3.5 Radiation Belts within the Earth's Magnetic Field 68
3.3.6 Radiation Effects on Materials and on the Human Organism 70
3.3.7 Protective Measures 72
3.4 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) 73
3.4.1 Galactic Radiofrequency (RF) Noise 75
3.4.2 Solar Radiation 76
3.4.3 Solar Radiation Pressure 78
3.4.4 Albedo Radiation 79
3.4.5 Thermal Radiation 80
3.5 Natural and Other Radiation Sources 81
3.6 The Atmosphere 82
3.6.1 Composition 82
3.6.2 Atomic Oxygen (AO) 86
3.7 The Ionosphere 89
3.7.1 Ionosphere Models 89
3.7.2 Variations in the Ionosphere 90
3.7.3 Behavior of Radio Waves in the Ionosphere 91
3.8 Solid Matter 92
3.8.1 Meteoroids 92
3.8.2 Sporadic Flux 93
3.8.3 Showers of Meteoroids 93
3.8.4 Space Debris 95
3.8.5 Occurrence of Space Debris 95
3.8.6 The Development of Space Debris-Caused Risk 98
3.8.7 Protection against Space Debris and Implications for Space Stations 100
3.9 Induced Environment  Contamination 103
4 Environmental Control and Life Support System 109
4.1 ECLSS: Environmental Protection for the Crew 109
4.1.1 Physiological Boundary Conditions 109
4.1.2 Metabolic Boundary Conditions 112
4.1.3 Additional Boundary Conditions 113
4.2 Tasks of an ECLSS 113
4.2.1 Overview and Classification 113
4.2.2 Atmosphere Management 115
4.2.3 Water Management 129
4.2.4 Waste Management 136
4.2.5 Food Supply 137
4.2.6 Crew Safety 138
4.3 Outlook on Bioregenerative ECLSS 139
4.4 Summary 143
5 Power and Thermal Control System 147
5.1 Power Supplies 148
5.1.1 Characteristics of Space Stations 148
5.1.2 Energy Sources and Storage Systems 150
5.2 Technology 154
5.2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Generators 154
5.2.2 Solar Dynamic Generators 163
5.2.3 Influence of Shadow Period on the Design of Solar Power Systems 166
5.2.4 Comparison of Photovoltaic and Solar Dynamic Systems 170
5.2.5 Energy Distribution and Processing 173
5.3 Examples of Overall Systems 176
5.4 The Tasks of the Thermal Control System 179
5.4.1 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 182
5.5 Thermal Control Systems 184
5.5.1 Passive Thermal Control Systems 184
5.5.2 Active Thermal Control Systems 185
5.5.3 Performance and Technological Data of TCS Hardware 189
5.5.4 Boundary Conditions for the Design of Thermal Control Systems 190
5.5.5 Radiators 192
5.6 System Examples 195
5.7 The Thermal Control System of the International Space Station 196
5.7.1 Passive Thermal Control 197
5.7.2 Active Thermal Control 198
6 Attitude and Orbit Control System 205
6.1 The Attitude and Orbit Control Problem 205
6.2 Perturbations 207
6.2.1 Aerodynamic Drag 208
6.2.2 Aerodynamic Torque 210
6.2.3 Gravity Gradient 211
6.2.4 Operational Influences 214
6.3 Flight Strategies 215
6.3.1 Strategies for Attitude Control 215
6.3.2 Orbit Control Strategies 221
6.4 Propulsion System Technology 227
6.4.1 Thrusters 228
6.4.2 Generation of Control Torques 232
6.4.3 Sensors 236
6.5 Overall System 237
7 Utilization 239
7.1 Environmental Conditions and User Disciplines 239
7.1.1 Weightlessness and Microgravity 240
7.1.2 Vacuum 243
7.1.3 Space Radiation 244
7.1.4 Overview of User Disciplines 245
7.2 Physics and Materials Science 247
7.2.1 Results Obtained and Areas for Future Research 247
7.2.2 Summary of Prospects for the International Space Station 267
7.3 Life Sciences and Biotechnology 268
7.3.1 Results Obtained and Areas for Future Research 268
7.3.2 Emphasis on Further Research in the Field of Life Sciences 278
7.4 Space Sciences 282
7.4.1 Typical Disciplines of Space Sciences: Astrophysics and Radiation Physics 282
7.4.2 What does ISS Offer in the Way of Benefits for Space Sciences? 285
7.5 Earth Observation 286
7.6 Engineering Sciences and Development of Technology 290
7.6.1 Validation of New Technologies 291
7.6.2 Examples of the Development of Systems and Components 291
7.7 Outlook for Industrial and Commercial Applications 294
7.7.1 Fluid and Materials Sciences 295
7.7.2 Biotechnology and Medicine 296
7.7.3 Summary of Industrial Applications 297
8 Microgravity 299
8.1 Microgravity as a Locational Advantage 299
8.2 Ways to Obtain Microgravity 300
8.2.1 Drop Tower 301
8.2.2 Parabolic Flights 303
8.2.3 Sounding Rockets 304
8.2.4 Space Capsules 305
8.2.5 Flight Opportunities 305
8.2.6 SPAS 307
8.2.7 EURECA 308
8.2.8 Spacelab 308
8.2.9 Space Stations 308
8.2.10 Comparison of Flight Opportunities 309
8.3 Perturbing Accelerations aboard Space Stations 311
8.3.1 Atmospheric Drag 312
8.3.2 Tidal Forces 314
8.3.3 The g-Jitter 318
8.3.4 Solar Radiation Pressure 322
8.4 Perturbation Compensation and Levitation 323
9 System Engineering 329
9.1 The Life Cycle of a Space Project 329
9.2 The Conceptual Design Problem 334
9.3 Methods and Tools for Conceptual Design 338
9.3.1 Conceptual Design Methodology 339
9.3.2 Characterization of System Elements 345
9.3.3 Conceptual Design Tools 358
9.4 Space Station Architectures 362
9.4.1 CDG and "Freedom" Concepts 362
9.4.2 The Mir Configuration 366
9.4.3 The Columbus Free Flying Laboratory 367
9.4.4 The International Space Station (ISS) 368
10 Synergisms 371
10.1 Terms and Concepts 371
10.2 Coupling of Subsystems 372
10.3 System Balances 373
10.4 Examples for Synergistic Linkages 375
10.4.1 Non-Integrated System 376
10.4.2 Regenerative Fuel Cells for Energy Storage 380
10.4.3 Regenerative Fuel Cell for Pollutant Filtering 384
10.4.4 Electrolytically Produced Propellants 387
10.4.5 Safety and Reliability 389
10.5 Summary 390
11 Human Factors 393
11.1 Terms and Historical Development 393
11.2 Humans in Space 395
11.3 Human Factors Engineering (HFE) 398
11.3.1 Organization and Integration 398
11.3.2 Methods of HFE 399
11.3.3 Means of HFE Support 402
11.4 Design of a Workstation 406
11.5 Habitability and Crew Performance 412
11.6 Astronaut Selection 414
11.6.1 Astronaut Tasks and Duties 415
11.6.2 Selection Criteria 415
11.6.3 Rejection Criteria 416
11.6.4 Selection Process 417
12 Logistics, Communications and Operation 419
12.1 Logistics 419
12.1.1 Transportation Requirements 420
12.1.2 Launch Systems and Transportation Capabilities 423
12.1.3 The Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) 425
12.1.4 Return Vehicles 429
12.1.5 Extravehicular Activities 432
12.2 Data and Communication Systems 433
12.2.1 The Data Management System 434
12.2.2 Transmission Paths to Space Stations 435
12.2.3 Distributed Data Systems 438
12.2.4 Radio Communication System Design 442
12.2.5 Antennas 445
12.2.6 Modulation and Coding 448
12.2.7 The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 450
12.2.8 Data and Communication Systems for the ISS 452
12.3 Automation and Maintenance 452
12.3.1 Payload Operation aboard a Space Station 453
12.3.2 Design of Payloads that are Subject to Maintenance and Repair 456
12.3.3 Automation of Payload Operation 457
12.3.4 Testing and Verification 463
12.3.5 Summary 463
12.4 Telescience 464
12.4.1 Crew Time  A Critical Resource 465
12.4.2 Teleoperation and Telepresence 467
13 The International Space Station 471
13.1 Station and Mission Elements 471
13.1.1 Characteristics of ISS 472
13.1.2 The Gradual Assembly of ISS 474
13.1.3 Mission Characteristics 475
13.2 Pressurized Modules and Payload Structures 477
13.2.1 The US Laboratory Modules 478
13.2.2 The Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) 480
13.2.3 The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) 482
13.2.4 The Russian Laboratory Modules 483
13.3 Accommodation Sites for External Payloads 484
13.3.1 The US Truss Structure ITA (Integrated Truss Assembly) 484
13.3.2 The Japanese Experiment Module Exposed Facility (JEM-EF) 486
13.3.3 Russian External Payload Attachment Sites 486
13.3.4 The Station's External Robotic Systems 486
13.3.5 External Environmental Monitoring 488
13.4 Transportation Systems and Logistics Containers 488
13.5 Payloads and Payload Selection 491
13.5.1 Typical Payloads: Experiment Facilities and Experiments 491
13.5.2 Selection of Class 1 Payloads and Users 492
13.5.3 Access for Commercial Users 495
13.5.4 Utilization Planning 496
13.5.5 International Coordination of Space Station Utilization 498
13.5.6 From Conceptual Design to Qualification 499
13.5.7 Development Support 500
13.5.8 The User Support and Operations Centers 501
13.5.9 From Ground Verification to Launch 503
13.5.10 Performance of Experiments: From On-Orbit Installation to Return of Results to Earth 504
13.6 Preparation for ISS Utilization 506
13.6.1 Present NASA and ESA Early Utilization Plans 506
13.6.2 European Facilities for the Early Utilization Phase 508
13.6.3 ESA's Preparation for the Early Utilization Phase 509
13.6.4 European Utilization Plans for the Initial Utilization Phase 516
13.6.5 Outlook on the Routine Phase and User Acquisition 517
13.6.6 Preparation of Future Payloads 519
References 521
Fundamental Constants 535
Glossary 537
Index 551
END
