ISBN: 354059244X
TITLE: Activity Patterns in Small Mammals
AUTHOR: Halle, S.; Stenseth, N.C. (Eds.)
TOC:

Section I Introduction 1
1 Introduction
S. Halle and N.C. Stenseth 3
1.1 Two States of Life 3
1.2 Die1 Patterns and the Biological Clock 4
1.3 Doing the Right Thing at the Right Time 6
1.4 The History of an Idea 8
1.5 Why Do We Know That Little? 10
1.6 Why Small Mammals? 12
1.7 About this Book 14
References 16
Section II Theoretical Considerations 19
Theoretical Considerations  Introduction
S. Halle and N.C. Stenseth 21
2 Activity Patterns and the Biological Clock in Mammals
T.J. Bartness and H.E. Albers 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 The Circadian Clock 24
2.3 Circadian Clocks in Mammals 26
2.3.1 General Features 26
2.3.2 Temperature Effects on the Circadian Clock 27
2.3.3 Physiological Influences on the Circadian Clock 28
2.4 Entrainment of Rhythms by Light and Other Signals 28
2.4.1 Light 28
2.4.2 Food Availability 29
2.4.3 Nonphotic Zeitgebers 30
2.4.4 Social Factors 31
2.5 Localisation of the Circadian Clock in Mammals 32
2.5.1 The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 32
2.5.2 Anatomy and Neurochemistry of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 33
2.6 Overview of the Major Activity Pattern Types in Mammals 34
2.6.1 Terminology 34
2.6.2 Nocturnal 34
2.6.3 Diurnal 35
2.6.4 Crepuscular 36
2.6.5 Ultradian 36
2.6.6 Acyclic 37
2.7 Effects of Semi-natural Environments in the Laboratory on Activity Patterns 38
2.8 Daily Activity Patterns: Flexibility, Variability and Interaction with Other Rhythms 39
2.8.1 Flexibility Between Species in Their Activity Patterns 39
2.8.2 Within Species Variability in Activity Patterns 41
2.8.3 Interactions of Circannual Rhythms with Circadian Rhythms 41
2.9 Concluding Remarks 43
References 44
3 Activity Patterns and Metabolism
J. Weiner 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 The Energy Budget and Its Limits 50
3.3 The Structure of Energy Budgets 52
3.4 Food Acquisition: Foraging Rates, Foraging Costs 55
3.4.1 Indirect Estimates Based on Allometry 55
3.4.2 Foraging Rates Estimated from Activity Budgets 55
3.5 Constraints on Foraging Activity 57
3.5.1 The Model 57
3.5.2 Numerical Solution and Empirical Evidence 60
3.6 Activity Patterns Under High Energy Loads 61
3.7 Concluding Remarks 62
References 63
4 Ecological Relevance of Daily Activity Patterns
S. Halle 67
4.1 Increasing Fitness by Activity Timing 67
4.2 Autecological Advantages of Appropriate Timing 69
4.2.1 Shiftwork in the Habitat 70
4.2.2 A Matter of Season 71
4.3 Inter-individual Aspects 73
4.3.1 Community Life 74
4.3.1.1 Spacing Behaviour 74
4.3.1.2 Social Contacts 76
4.3.2 Tied by Conflict 76
4.3.2.1 Prey 77
4.3.2.2 Predators 79
4.3.2.3 Temporal Coevolution? 81
4.3.3 The Temporal Niche 83
4.4 Concluding Remarks 86
References 89
Section III Empirical Findings 91
Empirical Findings - Introduction
S. Halle and N.C. Stenseth 93
5 Weasels and Martens - Carnivores in Northern Latitudes
W.J. Zielinski 95
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Metabolic Consequences of Mustelid Size and Shape 96
5.3 Proximate and Ultimate Effects on Activity 98
5.3.1 Foraging Time, Meal Patterning and Digestive Constraints 99
5.3.2 The Visual System 104
5.3.3 Temperature and Season 105
5.3.4 Competition 106
5.3.5 Predator Avoidance 107
5.3.6 Social and Reproductive Behaviour 107
5.3.7 Prey Availability 108
5.4 Conclusions 111
References
6 Mongooses, Civets and Genets - Carnivores in Southern Latitudes
F. Palomares and M. Delibes 119
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 General Trends in Activity Patterns 120
6.2.1 Overview
6.2.2 Relationships Between Activity Patterns and Ecological Attributes 122
6.3 Activity Patterns of Egyptian Mongooses and European Genets 123

6.3.1 Data Collection 123
6.3.2 Start and End of Activity 124
6.3.3 Total Activity Time per 24h Day 125
6.3.4 Time Budget 125
6.3.5 Relationships Between Predators and Prey Activity 126
6.4 Discussion and Conclusions 126
References 129
7 Squirrels  MediumSized Granivores in Woodland Habitats
L. A. Wauters 131
7.1 Introduction 131
7.2 The Daily Activity Pattern 131
7.2.1 General Pattern and Seasonal Variation 131
7.2.2 Geographical Variation 133
7.3 Foraging Behaviour and the Activity Pattern 134
7.3.1 Foraging and Activity of Red Squirrels in Coniferous Woods 134
7.3.1.1 Winter (DecemberFebruary) 134
7.3.1.2 Spring (MarchMay) 135
7.3.1.3 Summer (JuneAugust) 135
7.3.1.4 Autumn (SeptemberNovember) 136
7.3.2 Habitat Effects 136
7.4 Activity Pattern and Intraspecific Competition 138
7.4.1 Sex Differences Between Adults 139
7.4.2 Age Differences 141
7.5 Conclusions 141
References 142
8 Activity Patterns of Kangaroo Rats  Granivores in a Desert Habitat
M. Daly, P.R. Behrends, and M.I. Wilson 145
8.1 Introduction 145
8.2 Nocturnality 146
8.3 Mating Effort and Aboveground Activity 149
8.4 Activity Levels and Predation Risk. 149
8.4.1 Moonlight Avoidance, Crepuscular Compensation, and Predation Risk 151
8.4.2 Roes Predation Maintain Heterogeneity of Activity Profiles? 153
8.4.3 Sex Differential Predation Risk? A Methodological Caveat 154
8.5 An Unresolved Question 156
References 156 

9 Gerbils and Heteromyids  Interspecific Competition and the SpatioTemporal Niche
Y. Ziv and J.A. Smallwood 159
9.1 Introduction 159
9.2 Gerbils and Daily Temporal Partitioning 161
9.3 Heteromyids and Seasonal Temporal Partitioning 166
9.4 Concluding Remarks and Synthesis 169
9.4.1 Temporal Partitioning and Its Relation to Species Coexistence 170
9.4.2 Synthesis 172
References 173
10 Wood Mice  Small Granivores/Insectivores with Seasonally Variable Patterns
J.R. Flowerdew 177
10.1 Introduction 177
10.2 Seasonal Patterns of Activity 177
10.3 Environmental and Physiological Influences on Activity Patterns 181
10.3.1 Environmental Influences 181
10.3.2 Physiological Influences 182
10.4 Intra and Interspecific Influences on Activity 183
10.4.1 Intraspecific Influences 183
10.4.2 Interspecific Influences 184
10.5 Discussion 185
References 187
11 Voles  Small Graminivores with Polyphasic Patterns
S. Halle 191
11.1 Microtine Rodents, a Special Case of Diel Activity Patterns 191
11.2 A Historical Perspective 193
11.3 The Temporal Structure of Microtine Activity 195
11.3.1 The Ultradian Component 196
11.3.1.1 General Features 196
11.3.1.2 Activity Synchronisation at the Population Level 198
11.3.2 The Circadian Component 201
11.3.3 The Seasonal Component 203
11.3.4 A LongTerm Component? 206
11.4 Ecological Factors Affecting Microtine Activity Behaviour 209
11.5 Conclusion 212
References 213
12 Djungarian Hamsters  Small Graminivores with Daily Torpor
T. Ruf and G. Heldmaier 217
12.1 Djungarian Hamsters: Through Cold Winters on Hairy Feet.. 217
12.2 Measurements of Locomotion, Temperature and Metabolic Rate 219
12.3 Model Calculations 220
12.4 Adjustment of Locomotor Activity Patterns to Environmental Changes 221
12.5 Energy Requirements For Activity  The Impact of Cold Load 224
12.6 Locomotion and Daily Torpor: Interactions 225
12.7 Budgeting of Time and Energy Under Natural Conditions 228
12.8 Constraints, Unknowns, and Alternative Strategies 231
References 232
13 Shrews  Small Insectivores with Polyphasic Patterns
J.F. Merritt and S.H. Vessey 235
13.1 Introduction 235
13.2 Methods 236
13.3 Factors Influencing Activity Rhythms 242
13.3.1 Food 242
13.3.2 Light, Weather, and Seasonal Factors 244
13.3.3 Sex and Reproduction 246
13.3.4 Optimal Foraging and Competitors 247
13.4 Conclusions 248
References 248
14 Bats  Flying Nocturnal Mammals
H.G. Erkert 253
14.1 Introduction 253
14.2 Flight Activity Patterns under Natural Conditions 255
14.2.1 Recording Methods 255
14.2.2 Timing of Flight Activity 256
14.2.3 Activity Patterns 259
14.2.4 Effect of Environmental Factors on the Timing and Pattern of Flight Activity 261
14.2.4.1 Light 261
14.2.4.2 Ambient Temperature 264
14.2.4.3 Precipitation and Wind 265
14.2.4.4 Food Abundance 265
14.2.5 Effect of Endogenous Factors on the Timing and Pattern of Flight Activity 266
14.3 Activity Patterns in the Laboratory 267
14.4 Conclusions 268
References 269
Section IV Conclusion 273
15 Chronoecology: New Light Through Old Windows  A Conclusion
S. Halle and N.C. Stenseth 275
15.1 A New Term  And a New View 275
15.2 Activity Patterns and Evolutionary Ecology 276
15.3 Chronoecology and the Biological Clock 277
15.4 Chronoecology and the Energy Household 278
15.5 Chronoecology  Where Ecology Comes In 280
15.5.1 Predation 280
15.5.2 Interspecific Competition 281
15.5.3 Intraspecific Organisation 282
15.6 Future Challenges in Chronoecology 283
References 284
Appendix 285
Measuring and Analysing Activity of Small Mammals in the Laboratory and in the Field
S. Halle and D. Weinert 285
1 Methodology  Reality Constraints to Wishful Thinking 285
2 Recording Activity  Free Choice Among Drawbacks 286
2.1 Activity Cages 286
2.2 Enclosures 288
2.3 Field Studies 289
2.3.1 Trapping 290
2.3.2 Automatic Recording with Passage Counters 291
2.3.3 Radiotelemetry 292
2.4 Activity Recording  A Conclusion 293
3 Analysis of Biological Time Series  Possibilities and Limitations 293
3.1 Data Collection. 295
3.2 
Graphic Presentation of Data 295
3.3 Pretreatment of Data 298
3.4 Mathematical Methods of Time Series Analyses 299
3.4.1 Cosinor Analysis 299
3.4.2 Chi^2Periodogram 302
3.4.3 Fourier Analysis 303
3.4.4 Maximum Entropy Spectral Analysis (MESA) 304
3.5 Time Series Analysis  A Conclusion 305
4 Activity Indices  Special Solutions For Noisy Field Data 306
References 309
Subject Index 313
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