ISBN: 3-540-64075-4
TITLE: Remote Sensing in Hydrology and Water Management
AUTHOR: Schultz, Gert A.; Engman, Edwin T. (Eds.)
TOC:

Preface V 
About the Editors VII 
Authors IX 
Section I: Overview and Basic Principles 1 
Chapter 1 Introduction 3 
1.1 Introduction 3 
1.2 Remote Sensing Defined 3 
1.3 The Nature of Remote Sensing Data 4 
1.4 Satellite Systems 6 
1.4.1 Remote Sensing Platforms6 
1.4.2 Remote Sensing Sensors 9 
1.4.3 Spatial Resolution 10 
1.4.4 Temporal Resolution 12 
1.5 Remote Sensing and Hydrology 12 
1.6 Structure of the Book 13 
Chapter 1 Physical Principles and Technical Aspects 
of Remote Sensing 15 
1.7 Introduction 15 
1.8 The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Radiation Laws 15 
1.9 Atmospheric Propagation 21 
1.10 Reflection and Emission Characteristics of Natural Media 26 
1.11 Sensor Principles 30 
1.12 Summary of Current and Future 
Earth Observation Missions 37 
Chapter 2 Processing Remotely Sensed Data: 
Hardware and Software Considerations 41 
2.1 Image Processing System Characteristics 41 
2.1.1 The Central Processing Unit (CPU): Personal Computers, 
Workstations and Mainframes 41 
2.1.2 Number of Analysts on a System and Mode of Operation 44 
2.1.3 Serial versus Parallel Image Processing, Arithmetic Coprocessor, 
and Random Access Memory (RAM) 44 
2.1.4 Operating System and Software Compilers 46 
2.1.5 Mass Storage 47 
2.1.6 Screen Display Resolution 48 
2.1.7 Screen Color Resolution 49 
2.1.8 Image Scanning (Digitization) Considerations 49 
2.2 Image Processing and GIS Software Requirement 50 
2.2.1 Preprocessing 52 
2.2.2 Display and Enhancement 52 
2.2.3 Remote Sensing Information Extraction 53 
2.2.4 Photogrammetric Information Extraction 54 
2.2.5 Metadata and Image/Map Lineage Documentation 54 
2.2.6 Image and Map Cartographic Composition 57 
3.2.7 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 57 
3.2.8 Utilities 57 
2.3 Commercial and Publicly Available Digital Image 
Processing Systems 58 
2.4 Summary 58 
Chapter 3 Integration of Remotely Sensed Data into Geographical 
Information Systems 65 
3.1 Introduction 65 
3.2 General Approach 67 
3.2.1 Raster and Vector Data Structures 67 
3.2.2 Current Approaches to the Integration 70 
3.2.3 Errors Associated with Geographical Processing 71 
3.3 Current Applications 72 
3.3.1 Watershed Database Development 72 
3.3.2 Integrated Use of Elevation Data 73 
3.3.3 Land-use/Land-cover Change Detection 74 
3.3.4 Modeling Watershed Runoff 75 
3.3.5 Monitoring and Modeling of Water Quality 76 
3.3.6 Soil Erosion Monitoring 77 
3.4 Future Perspectives 78 
Section II: Remote Sensing Application to Hydrologic 
Monitoring and Modeling 83 
Chapter 4 Remote Sensing in Hydrological Modeling 85 
4.1 Introduction 85 
4.2 Remote Sensing in Operational Hydrologic Modeling 87 
4.3 Remote Sensing in Coupled Water-Energy 
Balance Modeling 90 
4.4 Remote Sensing Approach 92 
4.4.1 Solar radiation 92 
4.4.2 Downwelling longwave 93 
4.4.3 Precipitation 94 
4.4.4 Air Temperature 94 
4.4.5 Surface Air Humidity 95 
4.5 Modeling Example: The Red River Arkansas Basin 96 
4.6 Future Directions 97 
Colour Plates of Chaps. 2-5 103 
Chapter 5 Precipitation111 
5.1 Introduction 111 
5.2 General Approach 112 
5.2.1 Ground-based radar 112 
5.2.2 Use of visible and infrared satellite data 114 
5.2.3 Use of passive microwave satellite data 114 
5.2.4 Space-borne radar 115 
5.3 Current Techniques 115 
5.3.1 Single polarisation radar measurements of rainfall 115 
5.3.2 Measurement of snowfall and hail 118 
5.3.3 Multi-parameter radar 120 
5.3.4 Satellite cloud indexing and life history methods of rainfall 
estimation 121 
5.3.5 Bispectral techniques 123 
5.3.6 Passive microwave estimates of rainfall from space 124 
5.3.7 Sampling errors 126 
5.4 The potential for improvement 127 
5.4.1 Current performance levels 127 
5.4.2 The future 128 
Chapter 6 Land-use and Catchment Characteristics 133 
6.1 Introduction 133 
6.2 Land cover Mapping with Remote Sensing 134 
6.3 Vegetation Indices 135 
6.3.1 Simple Vegetation Indices 136 
6.3.2 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 138 
6.3.3 Refined estimates 139 
6.3.4 Multi-temporal Vegetation Index 140 
6.4 Thematic Classification 140 
6.4.1 Image Classification Methods 142 
6.4.2 Maximum Likelihood Classification 145 
6.4.3 Discussion 147 
6.4.4 Probability estimation refinements 147 
6.4.5 Segmentation 149 
6.4.6 Case study in the Pantanal Area, Brazil150 
6.5 Radar 152 
Chapter 7 Evaporation 157 
8.1 Introduction 157 
7.1.1 General 157 
7.1.2 Remote sensing of land evaporation 158 
7.2 Evaporation and radiometric variables 160 
7.2.1 Potential Evaporation 160 
7.2.2 Actual Evaporation 162 
7.3 Remote Sensing of Land Evaporation: Applications and 
Modelling Approaches 165 
7.3.1 General 165 
7.3.2 Linear relationships between evaporation and land surface 
temperature [1] 166 
7.3.3 Improved linear relationships [2] 167 
7.3.4 Relationships between evaporation, surface, temperature 
and spectral indices [3] 168 
7.3.5 Soil Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer 
(SVAT) models [4] 169 
7.3.6 Integrated SVAT and Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL)
models [5] 170 
7.4 Current trends: improved observations and improved 
parameterizations 171 
7.4.1 Local maximum evaporation 
and land surface temperature [6] 171 
7.4.2 Improved observation of land surface variables [7] 174 
7.5 Spatial variability 177 
7.6 Accuracy 178 
7.7 Applications 179 
7.8 Current and Future Observations 180 
7.9 Summary and Conclusions 181 
Colour Plates of Chaps. 6-8 189 
Chapter 9 Soil Moisture 197 
9.2 Introduction 197 
9.3 General Approach 198 
9.4 Sensor-Target Interactions 202 
9.5 Hydrologic Examples 209 
9.6 Future Microwave Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture 212 
Chapter 10 Remote Sensing of Surface Water 217 
10.2 Introduction 217 
10.2 Surface Water Detection 218 
10.3 Lake and Reservoir Area Estimates 220 
10.4 Wetlands 223 
10.5 Lake Levels 224 
10.6 River Levels and Flows 226 
10.7 Flood Extent 230 
10.8 Conclusion 233 
Chapter 11 Snow and Ice 239 
11.2 Role of Snow and Ice 239 
11.3 General Approach 240 
11.2.1 Gamma Radiation 240 
11.2.1 Visible Imagery 242 
11.3.1 Thermal Infrared 244 
11.3.2 Passive and Active Microwave 244 
11.3.3 Related Applications 248 
11.4 Current Applications 249 
11.3.1 NOHRSC Snow Cover and Snow Water 
Equivalent Products 249 
9.2.1 Canadian Prairie Snow Water Equivalent Mapping 250 
9 2 1 Snowmelt Runoff Forecast Operations 252 
11.5 Future Directions 255 
11.5.1 Improved Resolution in the Passive Microwave 255 
11.5.2 Improved Algorithms in the Passive Microwave 256 
11.5.3 Outlook for Radar Applications 256 
11.5.4 Integration of Various Data Types 257 
Colour Plates of Chaps. 9-11 263 
Chapter 12 Soil Erosion 271 
12.2 Introduction 271 
12.2 Basis for using Remote Sensing 273 
12.3 Applications 274 
12.4 Case Studies 276 
12.4.1 Photointerpretation/Photogrammetry 277 
12.4.2 Model/GIS Inputs 279 
12.4.3 Spectral Properties 280 
12.4.4 Topographic Measurements 281 
12.5 Future Directions 282 
Chapter 13 Water Quality 287 
13.2 Introduction 287 
13.2 Basis for using Remote Sensing 288 
13.3 Application 290 
13.4 Case Studies 291 
13.4.1 Suspended Sediments 291 
13.4.2 Chlorophyll 294 
13.4.3 Temperature 297 
13.4.4 Oils 298 
13.5 Future Directions 299 
Chapter 14 Groundwater 305 
14.2 Introduction 305 
14.2 Conceptualization of the hydrogeology 306 
14.2.1 The three dimensional hydrogeologic situation 306 
14.2.2 Groundwater surface 309 
14.2.3 Flow systems 310 
14.3 Aspects of water budgets 312 
14.3.1 Groundwater irrigation drafts 312 
14.3.2 Recharge 313 
14.4 Hard rock terrain and lineaments 319 
14.5 Groundwater management and conclusions 321 
14.6 Conclusions and future perspectives 322 
Section III: Water Management with the Aid 
of Remote Sensing Data 327 
Chapter 15 Introduction to and General Aspects of 
Water Management with the aid of Remote Sensing 329 
15.2 Introduction 329 
15.2 Potential of remote sensing in water management 329 
15.2.1 Surveying and mapping 330 
15.2.2 Spatial analysis and regionalization 332 
15.2.3 Monitoring and forecasting 332 
15.3 River basin planning with the aid of remote sensing 334 
15.3.1 Introduction 334 
15.3.2 Hydrologic monitoring & forecasting 334 
15.3.3 Upstream-downstream interrelationships in river basins 335 
15.4 Watershed management with the aid of remote sensing 338 
15.4.1 Introduction 338 
15.4.2 Hydrologic photo-interpretation for 
watershed management 338 
15.5 Small-scale water resource development 
and remote sensing 340 
15.5.1 Introduction 340 
15.5.2 Runoff water harvesting with the aid of remote sensing 340 
15.5.3 Flood spreading and groundwater recharge 341 
15.6 Irrigation water management and remote sensing 341 
15.7 Decision support systems for water management 342 
15.7.1 Introduction342 
15.7.2 Expert and decision support systems 342 
Colour Plates of Chaps. 12-15 349 
Chapter 16 Flood Forecasting and Control 357 
16.2 Introduction 357 
16.2 General Approach 358 
16.2.1 Modeling Philosophy 358 
16.2.2 Remote Sensing Data, Types and Acquisition 360 
16.2.3 Determination of Hydro-meteorological Information from 
Remote Sensing Data 360 
16.2.4 Transformation of Area Precipitation into a 
Real-time Forecast of a Runoff Hydrograph 362 
16.3 Real-time Flood Control with the Aid of Flood Forecasts 
Based on Remote Sensing Data  an Example 365 
16.3.1 Basic Principle 365 
16.3.2 Radar Rainfall Measurements 
in the Gnz River Catchment 367 
16.3.3 Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (QPF) 368 
16.3.4 Rainfall-Runoff-Model Application for Flood Forecasting 368 
16.3.5 Optimum Reservoir Operation Based on Forecast Flood 
Hydrographs 370 
16.4 Flood Forecasting and Control in an Urban Environment 372 
16.5 Future Perspectives 375 
Chapter 17 Irrigation and Drainage 377 
17.2 Introduction 377 
17.1.1 Current non-remote sensing approaches and limitations 378 
17.1.2 Reviews of remote sensing applications in irrigation and 
drainage 379 
17.2 General Approach 380 
17.2.1 Applications versus Observables and Algorithms 380 
17.2.2 Theory and conceptual approach 380 
17.2.3 Examples of applications 386 
17.3 Current Applications 387 
17.3.1 General 387 
17.3.2 High resolution mapping of irrigated lands 389 
17.3.3 Crop water requirements  Visible and Near Infrared 390 
17.3.4 Crop water stress  Thermal Infrared 391 
17.3.5 Catchment hydrology 392 
17.3.6 Detection of saline areas 392 
17.3.7 Irrigation management 393 
17.4 Current and future observations 394 
17.5 Future Directions and Potential 395 
Chapter 18 Computation of Hydrological Data for Design of Water 
Projects in Ungauged River Basins 401 
18.2 Introduction 401 
18.2 General Approach 403 
18.2.1 MODUL I: Satellite system, data processing 403 
18.2.2 MODUL II: Assessment of the monthly area precipitation 
on the basis of multi-temporal satellite imagery 406 
18.2.3 MODUL III: Estimation of runoff values 409 
18.3 Application 410 
18.3.1 Study area and data used 410 
18.3.2 Assessment of the monthly area precipitation with the aid 
of multi-temporal B2-Meteosat satellite imagery 411 
18.3.3 Rainfall  Runoff Model 413 
18.4 Further Applications 414 
18.5 Summary and Discussion 416 
Chapter 19 Detection of Land Cover Change Tendencies and 
their Effect on Water Management 419 
19.2 General Remarks 419 
19.2 Hydrological Modelling and Land Cover Change 422 
19.3 A Case Study: Land Use Change Detection by Remote 
Sensing in the Sauer River Basin, Western Europe 424 
19.4 Summary 432 
Colour Plates of Chaps. 16-19 435 
Section IV: Future Perspectives 443 
Chapter 20 Future Perspectives 445 
20.2 Introduction 445 
20.2 Status of Hydrologic Research and Modeling 446 
20.3 Water Management 448 
20.4 Data Issues in Hydrology 
and Water Resources Management 449 
20.5 Intensive Field Campaigns 452 
20.6 Existing Sensors and Platforms 453 
20.7 Planned and Proposed Sensors and Platforms 454 
20.8 Remote Sensing and Future Needs in Hydrology 456 
Appendix 20.1 Existing and Future Remote Sensing Satellites and 
Sensors Relevant to Hydrological Applications 458 
Appendix 20.2 Specification for Sensors Listed in Appendix 20.1 461 
List of Acronyms 471 
Index 475 
END
