ISBN: 3-540-67268-0
TITLE: Ecology and Evolution of the Freshwater Mussels Unionoida
AUTHOR: Bauer, Gerhard; Wchtler, Klaus (Eds.)
TOC:

Part I Systematics and Distribution
1 Characterization of the Unionoida (= Naiads) 3
G. Bauer
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Phylogeny 3
1.3 The Adult Stage 3
1.4 Larvae and Larval Development 4
1.5 Summary 4
2 Freshwater Mussels (Hyriidae) of Australasia 5
K.F. Walker, M. Byrne, C.W. Hickey, and D.S. Roper
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Phylogeny and Biogeography 5
2.3 Taxonomy 6
2.4 Regional Distribution 8
2.5 Phenotypic Variation 10
2.6 Reproduction 12
2.7 Abundance, Growth and Longevity 16
2.8 Environmental Tolerances 18
2.9 Food and Feeding 19
2.10 Biomonitoring 21
2.11 Parasites and Predators 23
2.12 Fisheries 23
2.13 Conservation 24
2.14 Conclusion 24
2.15 Summary 25
References 26
3 Systematics and Distribution of the Recent Margaritiferidae 33
D.G. Smith
3.1 Introduction 33
3.1.1 The Margaritiferidae Defined 33
3.1.2 Diagnosis of the Margaritiferidae 34
3.1.3 Review of Classifications 34
3.2 Materials and Methods 35
3.3 Systematics 35
3.3.1 Characters of the Margaritiferidae 35
3.3.2 On Certain Species of the Margaritiferidae 37
3.3.3 Revised Classification of the Margaritiferidae 40
3.4 Distribution 43
3.5 Summary 47
References 47
4 Population Genetics and Systematics of European Unionoidea 51
K.-O. Nagel and G. Badino
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Methods 52
4.2.1 Material 52
4.2.2 Electrophoresis 52
4.2.3 Analysis of Data 53
4.2.3.1 Genetic Variability 53
4.2.3.2 Cluster Analysis of Genetic Distances 53
4.2.3.3 Gene Flow Estimates 54
4.2.4 Limits to Population Genetics Methods 54
4.3 Margaritiferidae 58
4.4 Unionidae: Anodontinae 59
4.4.1 Molecular Variability and Systematics 59
4.4.2 Genetic Differentiation 59
4.4.3 Gene Flow 62
4.4.4 Conclusions 62
4.5 Unionidae: Unioninae 64
4.5.1 Unio pictorum 64
4.5.1.1 Molecular Variability and Systematics 64
4.5.1.2 Genetic Differentiation 69
4.5.1.3 Gene Flow 69
4.5.1.4 Conclusions 71
4.5.2 Unio crassus 74
4.5.2.1 Molecular Variability and Systematics 74
4.5.2.2 Genetic Differentiation 74
4.5.3 Unio tumidus 75
4.5.3.1 Molecular Variability and Systematics 75
4.5.3.2 Genetic Differentiation 75
4.6 Unionidae: Ambleminae 75
4.6.1 Microcondylaea bonellii 75
4.6.2 Potomida littoralis 76
4.7 Summary 78
References 78
Part II Life-History Strategies
5 Life-History Variation on Different Taxonomic Levels of Naiads 83
G. Bauer
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Life Span, Size and Shell Morphology 83
5.3 Sexual Strategies, Brooding and Host Infection 85
5.4 Larvae, Larval Development and Host Range 86
5.5 Conclusions 88
5.6 Summary 89
References 89
6 Larval Types and Early Postlarval Biology in Naiads (Unionoida) 93
K. Wchtler, M.C. Dreher-Mansur, and T. Richter
6.1 Introduction 93
6.2 The Glochidium: the Most Common Larva in Naiads 93
6.2.1 Early Observations 93
6.2.2 Formation, Storage and Release of Glochidia 93
6.2.3 Numbers 95
6.2.4 Morphology 95
6.2.4.1 Shape and Size 96
6.2.4.2 Shell 97
6.2.4.3 Adductor Muscle 97
6.2.4.4 Sensory Hairs 97
6.2.4.5 Ciliary Fields 99
6.2.4.6 Larval Mantle 99
6.2.4.7 Larval Thread 99
6.2.5 Interactions with the Host Fish 100
6.2.5.1 Suitable Host Fish 101
6.2.5.2 Attachment 102
6.2.5.3 Cyst Formation 102
6.2.5.4 Growth 102
6.2.5.5 Metamorphosis 102
6.2.5.6 Length of Larval Period 103
6.3 The Lasidium: a Larval Type with Two Developmental Options 105
6.3.1 Introductory Remarks on the Information Available 105
6.3.2 Early Observations 106
6.3.3 Formation, Storage and Release of Lasidia 106
6.3.4 Numbers 106
6.3.5 Morphology 106
6.3.5.1 Shape and Size 106
6.3.5.2 Body Surface 108
6.3.5.3 Adductor Muscle 108
6.3.5.4 Adhesive Structures 108
6.3.6 Interactions with the Host Fish 110
6.3.6.1 Suitable Host Fish 110
6.3.6.2 Attachment 110
6.3.6.3 Option One: Cyst Formation 110
6.3.6.4 Option Two: Transformation into a Second Larval Stage 110
6.3.6.4.1 Haustorium Formation in Mutela bourguignati 112
6.3.6.4.2 Differentiation of the Young Mussel at the Distal End of a Stalk 112
6.4 Direct Development in Naiads 112
6.5 From Ectoparasitism to Filter Feeding: the Biology of the Juvenile Mussel 114
6.5.1 Leaving the Host Fish 114
6.5.2 Morphology 114
6.5.2.1 Initial Size 114
6.5.2.2 Shells 115
6.5.2.3 Gills 115
6.5.2.4 Foot and Locomotion 115
6.5.2.5 Mantle 115
6.5.2.6 Digestive System 117
6.5.3 Ecology 117
6.5.3.1 Habitat Selection 117
6.5.3.2 Feeding 117
6.5.3.3 Growth 118
6.6 Comparative Remarks on Naiad Development 119
6.7 Summary 119
References 119
7 Plasticity of Life-History Traits in Unio crassus 127
S. Hochwald
7.1 Introduction 127
7.2 Estimations of Body Growth Parameters 127
7.3 Interrelations Among Body Growth Parameters 128
7.3.1 Significance of the Body Growth Constant 128
7.3.2 Plasticity of Body Growth Parameters in Unio crassus 128
7.3.3 Body Growth Constant Versus Life Span 129
7.3.4 Body Growth Constant Versus Length Parameters 130
7.4 Influence of Environmental Factors 131
7.4.1 Water Temperature 131
7.4.2 Physicochemical Parameters of Brook Water 131
7.5 The Impact of Growth Pattern on Reproduction 132
7.5.1 Allometric Constraints on Fertility 132
7.5.2 Differences in Spawning Repetitions Among Individuals and Populations 133
7.6 Consequences of Life-History Variation for the Survival of Populations 137
7.7 Summary 138
References 139
8 Life-History Data on the Virtually Unknown Margaritifera auricularia 143
R. Araujo and M.A. Ramos
8.1 Introduction 143
8.2 The population of M. auricularia in the Imperial Canal 143
8.3 Reproductive Behaviour 145
8.4 Two Species Declining Together 147
8.5 Conservation of an Endangered Species 150
8.6 Summary 150
References 151
Part III Populations and Communities
9 Factors Affecting Naiad Occurrence and Abundance 155
G. Bauer
9.1 Introduction 155
9.2 The Population Level 156
9.2.1 Stage- and Age-Specific Mortality 156
9.2.1.1 Larval Stage 156
9.2.1.2 Parasitic Stage 156
9.2.1.3 Juvenile Stage 156
9.2.1.4 Adult Stage 156
9.2.1.5 Survivorship Curve157
9.2.2 Age-Specific Fertility 159
9.3 The Community Level 159
9.3.1 Habitat Characteristics 159
9.3.2 Predation 160
9.3.3 Interspecific Competition 160
9.4 Summary 160
References 161
10 Effect of Muskrat Predation on Naiads 163
E. Zahner-Meike and J.M. Hanson
10.1 Introduction 163
10.1.1 The Study Species 163
10.2 Effect of Muskrat Predation on a Population of Margaritifera margaritifera and Pyganodon cataracta in New Brunswick, Canada 165
10.2.1 Methods of the Canadian Studies 165
10.2.1.1 Predation on Margaritifera margaritifera 165
10.2.1.2 Predation on Pyganodon cataracta 166
10.2.1.3 Laboratory and Statistical Analyses 167
10.2.2 Results of the Studies in Canada 167
10.2.2.1 Species and Size Selection 167
10.2.2.2 Morphology and Energetic Value 168
10.3 Effect of Muskrat Predation on the Populations of Unionid Mussels in Germany 169
10.3.1 Methods of the German Studies 169
10.3.2 Results of the Studies in Germany 170
10.3.2.1 Numbers of Mussels Eaten by Muskrats 170
10.3.2.2 Species-Selective Predation 171
10.3.2.3 Size-Selective Predation on Unio pictorum 171
10.3.2.4 Seasonal Pattern of Muskrat Predation 173
10.4 Discussion 174
10.4.1 Muskrat Predation Rates and Persistence of Endangered Mussel Populations 174
10.4.2 Size- and Species-Selective Predation 176
10.4.3 Seasonal Pattern of Muskrat Predation 179
10.4.4 Consequences of the Muskrat Invasion of Europe 180
10.5 Summary 180
References 181
11 Glochidial Mortality in Freshwater Mussels 185
W. Jansen, G. Bauer, and E. Zahner-Meike
11.1 Introduction 185
11.2 Factors Contributing to the Mortality of Unionoidea Early Life Stages 186
11.2.1 Larval Development and Release of Glochidia 186
11.2.2 Free-Living Glochidia 188
11.2.3 Glochidial Attachment and Encapsulation 193
11.2.4 Fish Hosts and Parasitic Phase 195
11.2.5 Glochidial Detachment and Early Postparasitic Stage 199
11.3 Quantitative Estimates of Glochidial Mortality 201
11.4 Summary 203
References 203
12 Macrohabitat Factors Influencing the Distribution of Naiads in the St. Croix River, Minnesota and Wisconsin, USA 213
D. Hornbach
12.1 Introduction 213
12.2 Materials and Methods 214
12.2.1 Study Location 214
12.2.2 Data Sources 216
12.2.3 Data Analysis 216
12.3 Results 217
12.4 Discussion 222
12.5 Summary 226
References 227
Part IV Evolutionary Biology
13 Framework and Driving Forces for the Evolution of Naiad Life Histories 233
G. Bauer
13.1 Introduction 233
13.2 The Evolution of Major Life-History Traits 233
13.2.1 Evolutionary Trends: from Primitive to Derived 233
13.2.1.1 Hydrodynamic Efficiency 234
13.2.1.2 Demibranch Morphology 234
13.2.1.3 Mode of Host Infection 234
13.2.2 Responses to Environmental Variation: Constraints, Tradeoffs, Plasticity and Adaptations 235
13.2.2.1 Body Size 235
13.2.2.2 Life Span 236
13.2.2.3 Host Range, Glochidial Size, Fertility 237
13.3 A Case Study: Life History Evolution along a River and a Trophic Gradient 238
13.3.1 Habitat Distribution of Four European Species 239
13.3.2 Life Span 239
13.3.2.1 What Factor Determines Life Span? 239
13.3.2.2 A Strategy for Maximizing Life Span: Margaritifera margaritifera 242
13.3.2.2.1 Evidence 242
13.3.2.2.2 Mechanisms244
13.3.3 Host Range, Glochidial Size, Fertility 244
13.3.3.1 Impact of the Fish Fauna 244
13.3.3.2 A Strategy for Maximizing Fertility as well as Young Mussel Size: Margaritifera margaritifera 245
13.3.4 Brooding and Host Infection 245
13.3.4.1 A Strategy for Improving Survival of Glochidia: Anodonta 247
13.3.5 Conclusions: a Sequence of Strategies 247
13.4 Plastic and Canalized Traits 248
13.5 Life Histories and Rates of Evolution 249
13.6 Summary 251
References 252
14 A Phylogenetic Perspective on the Evolution of Morphological and Reproductive Characteristics in the Unionoida 257
W.R. Hoeh, A.E. Bogan, and W.H. Heard
14.1 Introduction 257
14.2 Materials and Methods 259
14.2.1 Organisms 259
14.2.2 Methods 260
14.3 Results 264
14.3.1 Higher-Level Evolutionary Relationships Within the Unionoida 265
14.3.1.1 Morphology Analysis 265
14.3.1.2 Combined Analysis 266
14.4 Discussion 268
14.4.1 Unionoid Character Evolution 268
14.4.1.1 Morphology Analysis 268
14.4.1.2 Methodological Concerns 270
14.4.1.3 Combined Analysis 272
14.5 Conclusions 276
14.6 Summary 276
References 277
15 The Evolution of the Unionacea in North America, and Its Implications for the Worldwide Fauna 281
G.T. Watters
15.1 Introduction 281
15.2 What Is a Unionacean? 282
15.3 A Brief Review of North American Unionaceans Through Time 283
15.3.1 Triassic 283
15.3.2 Jurassic 285
15.3.3 Cretaceous 287
15.3.4 Cenozoic 294
15.4 Comparison of North America with Three European Faunas 298
15.4.1 The Swiss Oligocene 298
15.4.2 The Hungarian Tertiary 298
15.4.3 The Romanian Pliocene 299
15.5 From Where Do North American Unionaceans Originate? 300
15.6 The Mussel-Fish Symbiosis: Thoughts on How the Relationship Began 301
15.7 Summary 302
References 304
Part V Mussels and Environment
16 Environmental Relationships of Naiads: Threats, Impact on the Ecosystem, Indicator Function 311
G. Bauer and K. Wchtler
16.1 Introduction 311
16.2 Threats 311
16.2.1 Adult Stage 311
16.2.2 Glochidial and Parasitic Stage 312
16.2.3 Postparasitic Stage 312
16.3 Significance of Naiads for Seston Removal 312
16.4 Naiads as Environmental Monitors 313
16.5 Summary 313
References 314
17 Filtration and Respiration Rates of Two Unionid Species and Their Impact on the Water Quality of a Lowland River 317
M. Pusch, J. Siefert, and N. Walz
17.1 Introduction 317
17.2 Study Sites and Methods 318
17.3 Results 320
17.3.1 Filter-Feeding Activity 320
17.3.2 Respiration Activity 320
17.3.3 Metabolic Balance of the Mussels 322
17.3.4 Effect on the River Spree Ecosystem 322
17.4 Discussion 324
17.5 Summary 325
References 325
18 Effects of Eutrophication on Unionids 327
R.A. Patzner and D. Mller
18.1 Introduction 327
18.2 Methodological Approach 327
18.3 Effect of Eutrophication on a Stenoecious Species of Unionidae 328
18.4 Effect of Eutrophication on Euryoecious Species of Unionidae 329
18.4.1 Chemical Factors and Substrate 329
18.4.2 Effects of Eutrophication on the Abundance of Mussels 330
18.4.3 Effect of Eutrophication on Mussel Growth 330
18.4.4 Effect of Eutrophication on Body Condition 331
18.4.5 Effect of Eutrophication on Mussel Fecundity 332
18.4.6 Effect of Eutrophication on Juvenile Mussels 333
18.5 Summary 333
References 334
19 The Extent of, and Causes for, the Decline of a Highly Threatened Naiad: Margaritifera margaritifera 337
M.R. Young, P.J. Cosgrove, and L.C. Hastie
19.1 Introduction 337
19.2 Methods Used in the Collation of Data 337
19.3 Trends in the Status of M. margaritifera 337
19.3.1 North America 337
19.3.2 Portugal 339
19.3.3 Spain 339
19.3.4 France 340
19.3.5 Germany (Including Belgium and Luxembourg) 341
19.3.6 Austria 343
19.3.7 Czech Republic 344
19.3.8 Norway (Including Denmark) 345
19.3.9 Sweden 346
19.3.10 Finland 346
19.3.11 Russia 347
19.3.12 Eire 348
19.3.13 England 349
19.3.14 Wales 350
19.3.15 Northern Ireland 351
19.3.16 Scotland 352
19.4 Overall Population Trends and the Current Status of M. margaritifera 353
19.5 Summary 354
References 354
20 The Pearl Mussel-Salmon Community in the Varzuga River, Northwest Russia: Problems of Environmental Impacts 359
V. Ziuganov, S. Kaliuzhin, V. Beletsky, and E. Popkovich
20.1 Introduction 359
20.2 Materials and Methods 359
20.2.1 The Study Area 359
20.2.2 Estimated Number of Pearl Mussel 361
20.2.3 Density Estimates of Juvenile Salmon 361
20.3 Results and Discussion 361
20.3.1 Number of Pearl Mussels 361
20.3.2 Density of Parr 363
20.3.3 Threats to Survival 363
20.3.3.1 Pink Salmon 363
20.3.3.2 Commercial Fishery and Poaching 365
20.3.4 Measures to Conserve and Restore the Pearl Mussel-Salmon Community 365
20.4 Summary 366
References 366
21 How Environmental Information Can Be Obtained from Naiad Shells 367
H. Mutvei and T. Westermark
21.1 Introduction 367
21.2 Annual Growth Increments and Growth Rate 368
21.2.1 Variations in Growth Rates in a Single Population of Margaritifera margaritifera 368
21.2.2 Shell Microgrowth Pattern in Margaritifera margaritifera 368
21.2.3 Shell Growth Rate in Relation to Availability of Food 370
21.2.3.1 Margaritifera margaritifera 370
21.2.3.2 Unio crassus 371
21.2.4 Shell Structure and Growth Rate in Relation to Acidification 372
21.3 Elemental Distribution in Relation to Acidification 372
21.3.1 Sulphur and Nitrogen 372
21.3.2 Solubility of Iron, Zinc and Cobalt in Relation to Acidification 373
21.3.3 Strontium Isotope Ratio in Relation to Acidification 374
21.4 Manganese Concentration in Relation to Oxygen Depletion and Eutrophication 375
21.5 Applications 376
21.6 Summary 377
References 378
Part VI Synopsis
22 Ecology and Evolution of the Naiads 383
G. Bauer and K. Wchtler
22.1 Introduction 383
22.2 Naiads as Parasites 383
22.3 Naiads and Life-History Theory 385 
22.4 Naiads and Evolutionary Success 385
22.4.1 The Number of Radiating Species 385
22.4.2 Distribution Area 386
22.4.3 Population Density 386
22.4.4 Phylogenetic Age 386
22.5 Summary 386
References 387
Subject Index 389
END
