ISBN: 3-540-67127-7
TITLE: Global Climate Change and Human Impacts on Forest Ecosystems
AUTHOR: Puhe, Joachim; Ulrich, Bernhard
TOC:

1 Introduction 1
2 Forest-Ecosystem Fundamentals 5
2.1 The Forest Ecosystem and Its Environment 5
2.2 Space and Time Scales of Ecosystem Processes 6
2.3 Complexity and Order in Forest Ecosystems 10
2.3.1 Hierarchy Theory 10
2.3.2 Constraints by Higher Hierarchical Levels: Stability 12
2.3.3 Break of Hierarchy: Destabilisation 14
2.4 Process Patterns as Ecological Indicators 16
2.4.1 Buffering Properties of Soil 16
2.4.2 Element Content in Plant Organs and Litter 18
2.4.3 Humus Forms 19
2.4.4 Tree Architecture 19
2.4.5 Input/Output Budgets 23
2.4.6 Forest Structure 25
2.4.7 State Phases of Forest Ecosystems 27
2.5 Stabilising and Destabilising Effects 28
2.5.1 Site Requirements of Tree Species 29
2.5.2 Destabilising Effects 31
2.5.3 Stabilising Effects 33
3 Post-Glacial Development of Climate and Forest Ecosystems 35
3.1 Climate Development 35
3.1.1 Historical Climate Changes 35
3.1.2 Holocene Climate History 39
3.1.3 Twentieth-Century Climate Changes 45
3.2 Vegetation Development 52
3.2.1 General Limits of Forest Growth 52
3.2.2 Historical Patterns of Forest Growth 54
3.2.3 Late-Glacial Forest Emergence .56
3.2.4 Early-Holocene Forest Expansion 56
3.2.5 Middle/Late-Holocene Forest Development 57
3.2.6 The Human Influence 63
3.2.7 Properties and Migration Patterns of Central European Forest Taxa 68
3.3 Post-Glacial Changes in Nutrient Cycling and Soil Conditions 79
4 Sources and Sinks of Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollutants 83
4.1 Overview 83
4.1.1 Controls of Climate Development 83
4.1.2 The Greenhouse Effect 85
4.1.3 Other Atmospheric Perturbations 90
4.2 Carbon Compounds 91
4.2.1 Carbon Reserves and Carbon Cycling 91
4.2.2 Wood-Related Carbon Reserves 94
4.2.3 Carbon Reserves of the Forested Systems 96
4.2.4 Carbon Dioxide 97
4.2.5 Carbon Monoxide 107
4.2.6 Methane 108
4.2.7 Halocarbons 112
4.2.8 Volatile Organic Compounds 113
4.3 Nitrogen and Sulphur Compounds, and O_3 114
4.3.1 Nitrogen Compounds  an Overview 114
4.3.2 Nitrous Oxide 116
4.3.3 Ozone 119
4.3.4 Acidity: Nitrogen Oxides, NH_3, SO_2 125
4.4 Heavy Metals 136
5 Present State of Forest Ecosystems 141
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Forest Soil Condition 142
5.2.1 AcidBase Condition 142
5.2.2 Soil Organic-Matter Condition 147
5.2.3 Influence of Vegetation, Forest Type and Tree Species on Soil Organic-Matter Storage 153
5.3 Forest Vegetation Condition 157
5.3.1 Forest Area, Growing Stock and Increment 157
5.3.2 Biotic and Abiotic Influences on Timber Stocks and Forest Increments 163
5.3.3 Historical and Current Trends of Forest Damage and Decline 177
5.4 Overall Forest Carbon Reserves 183
6 Implications of Changes in Ambient and Climatic Conditions on Ecosystem Processes 187
6.1 Implications of the Deposition of Acid and Nitrogen 187
6.1.1 Effects of Acid Deposition on Leaves, Soil, Roots and Tree Nutrition 188
6.1.2 Effects on Decomposition 199
6.1.3 Effects on Crown Condition and Increment 201
6.1.4 Effects on Nutrient and Ion Cycles 204
6.1.5 Effects on Stand Development and Ecosystem Renewal 206
6.1.6 Effects on Genetics in Tree Populations 208
6.2 Implications of an Increase in the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Content 209
6.2.1 Atmospheric CO2 Concentrations in Earth's History and Plant Developmental Responses 209
6.2.2 Plant Responses to CO2 Enrichment 211
6.2.3 Interactions of Elevated CO2 Levels with Other Growth Factors 221
6.2.4 Effects of Elevated CO2 on Soils and Herbivores 230
6.2.5 Ecosystem Responses to Elevated CO2 235
6.3 Additional Effects of an Increase in Temperature 239
6.3.1 Immediate Responses to Temperature Changes 239
6.3.2 Response of Seasonal Ecosystem Processes to Temperature and Its Change 243
6.3.3 Responses of Annual Processes and Element Cycling to Temperature Changes 252
6.3.4 Temperature Response of Processes at Higher Scales 263
6.4 Implications of Climatic Changes on the Water Balance 267
6.4.1 Introduction 267
6.4.2 Water Regulation in Plants and Soil 268
6.4.3 Water Relationships at the Ecosystem Level 278
6.4.4 Effects on the Regional Water Balance 281
6.5 Implications of Catastrophic Weather Incidents 284
6.5.1 Introduction 284
6.5.2 Storms 284
6.5.3 Forest Fires 286
6.5.4 Floods 288
6.6 Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation 292
6.6.1 Introduction 292
6.6.2 General Aspects of UV Radiation 293
6.6.3 UV-B Effects on the Plant-Ecophysiological Level 295
6.6.4 UV-B Effects on Herbivores, Pests and Diseases 297
6.6.5 UV-B Effects on Plant Growth 298
6.6.6 UV-B Effects on Ecosystem Development 299
7 Scenarios of Future Changes 301
7.1 Expected Climate Changes 301
7.1.1 Methods of Climate-Evolution Research 301
7.1.2 Temperature 305
7.1.3 Precipitation 308
7.1.4 Other Climatic Parameters 309
7.1.5 Extreme Weather Events 309
7.1.6 Chemical Climate: Critical Levels and Critical Loads of Air Pollutants 312
7.1.7 Climate Feedback from Forests 321
7.2 Expected Soil Changes 322
7.2.1 Soil Moisture 323
7.2.2 Nutrient Status 325
7.3 Modelling Vegetation and Its Development Under Changing Conditions 326
7.3.1 Essentials and Approaches of Environmental Impact Modelling 328
7.3.2 Principal Outcomes of Bioclimatic Model Simulations 341
7.4 Expected Development of Forest Area and Wood Resources 364
7.4.1 Forest Area 364
7.4.2 Forest Growing Stocks 366
7.4.3 Forest-Product Consumption and Needs 369
7.5 Forestry Options for CO2 Mitigation 371
7.5.1 General Influences of Forestry on Terrestrial Carbon Reserves 371
7.5.2 Management for Biosystem Carbon Conservation 375
7.5.3 Forestation 376
7.5.4 Management for Fossil-Carbon Substitution 378
7.5.5 Forest-Soil Features 380
7.5.6 Forest-Biomass Features 384
7.6 Trends of Change in Common Forest Ecosystem Types of Central Europe 389
7.6.1 European-Beech Forests 394
7.6.2 Norway Spruce Forests 398
7.6.3 Scots-Pine Forests 404
7.6.4 Mountain-Forest Ecosystems 407
7.6.5 Aspects of Biological Diversity and Adaptation in the Forest Ecosystems 410
8 Forest Management 419
8.1 Introduction 419
8.2 Development of Forest Management in Central Europe 419
8.3 Forest-Management Practices 426
8.3.1 Stand Establishment 427
8.3.2 Tending of Stands 431
8.4 Forest Practice and Management in a European Comparison 432
8.4.1 Stand Establishment 432
8.4.2 Tending of Stands 434
8.4.3 Forest-Protection Problems and Future Perspectives 435
8.4.4 Conclusions 435
8.5 Management Strategies to Cope with Forest Decline 436
8.5.1 Tree-Species Selection 438
8.5.2 Forest Breeding 442
8.5.3 Stand Establishment 443
8.5.4 Natural Regeneration 444
8.5.5 Supporting Treatments to Stabilise Site Conditions 445
8.5.6 Silvicultural Methods to Stabilise Forest Stands 446
8.5.7 Tending and Utilisation of Forest Stands 446
8.6 Forest-Management Reactions on Climate Warming 448
8.6.1 Afforestation Opportunities to Influence the Global Carbon Balance 450
8.6.2 Reactions to the Possible Increase in Extreme Climatic Events 451
8.7 Arguments for a New Orientation of Forest Management 452
8.7.1 Ideas of Nature Conservation 453
8.7.2 Activities of Forest Administrations 455
8.7.3 Conclusions for Future Forest Management 457
9 Human Impacts on Central European Forests:
Summary and Conclusions 463
References 477
Subject Index 551
END
