ISBN: 3540676872
TITLE: Engineering Ceramics
AUTHOR: Bengisu
TOC:

1 Structure of Ceramic Materials 1
1.1 Electronic Structure of Atoms 1
1.2 Types of Bonding 3
1.2.1 Metallic Bonding 4
1.2.2 Ionic Bonding 5
1.2.3 Covalent Bonding 6
1.2.4 The van der Waals Bond 7
1.3 The Crystal Lattice 9
1.3.1 Crystalline Structures 9
1.3.2 Silicate Structures 9
1.4 Noncrystalline Structures 13
1.5 Phase Diagrams 15
1.5.1 Single-Component Phase Diagrams 17
1.5.2 Binary Phase Diagrams 18
1.5.2.1 Phase Diagrams of Isomorphous Systems 19
1.5.2.2 Eutectic Phase Diagrams 21
1.5.2.3 Peritectic Phase Diagrams 22
1.5.3 Ternary Phase Diagrams 24
2 Production and Properties of Ceramic Powders, Whiskers, Fibers, and Single Crystals 27
2.1 Ceramic Powders 29
2.1.1 Conventional Powder Production Techniques 28
2.1.1.1 Alumina (Al_2O_3) 28
2.1.1.2 Zirconia (ZrO_2) 28
2.1.1.3 Silicon Carbide (SiC) 30
2.1.1.4 Silicon Nitride (Si_3N_4) 30
2.1.2 Modern Powder Production Techniques 31
2.1.2.1 Solution Techniques 31
2.1.2.2 Vapor-Phase Reaction Techniques 39
2.1.2.3 Powders from the Solid State 47
2.1.2.4 Gas-Solid Reactions 51
2.2 Ceramic Whiskers 51
2.2.1 Growth of Whiskers by Vapor-Phase Reactions 52
2.2.1.1 Evaporation-Condensation 52
2.2.1.2 Chemical Reduction 52
2.2.1.3 Vapor-Vapor Reactions (Chemical Vapor Deposition CVD) 56
2.2.2 Vapor-Liquid-Solid (VLS) Method 57
2.2.3 SiC Whiskers from Rice Hulls 59
2.2.4 Growth from Melt Solutions (Flux Growth) 60
2.2.5 Growth from Gels 62
2.2.6 Hydrothermal Growth 62
2.3 Ceramic Single Crystals 63
2.3.1 Verneuil (Flame Fusion) Method 63
2.3.2 Czochralski Method 64
2.3.3 Bridgman-Stockbarger Method 64
2.3.4 Zone Melting (Floating Zone) Method 64
2.3.5 Edge Defined Film Fed Growth (EFG) Method 65
2.3.6 Heat Exchanger Method (HEM) 66
2.4 Ceramic and Glass Fibers 66
2.4.1 Glass Fibers 66
2.4.2 Boron Fibers 68
2.4.3 Carbon Fibers 72
2.4.3.1 Fibers from PAN Precursors 72
2.4.3.2 Fibers from Cellulosic Precursors 73
2.4.3.3 Fibers from Pitch Precursors 76
2.4.4 Carbide and Nitride Fibers 77
2.4.5 Oxide Fibers 79
3 Production of Ceramic Bodies 85
3.1 Preconsolidation Processing 87
3.1.1 Milling and Sizing 85
3.1.2 Dispersion and Rheology of Slurries 93
3.1.2.1 Rheology 93
3.1.2.2 van der Waals Forces 95
3.1.2.3 Electrostatic or Ionic Forces in Nonpolar Media 96
3.1.2.4 Electrostatic Forces in Polar Media 96
3.1.2.5 Stabilization via Surfactants 98
3.1.2.6 Steric Stabilization 99
3.1.2.7 Capillary Forces 100
3.1.2.8 Other Important Forces 101
3.1.3 Drying and Granulation of Powders 102
3.2 Greenn Forming 104
3.2.1 Additives 104
3.2.1.1 Types and Functions 104
3.2.1.2 Removal of Organic Additives 108
3.2.2 Dry Pressing 111
3.2.2.1 Uniaxial Dry Pressing 111
3.2.2.2 Isostatic Pressing 113
3.2.3 Slip Casting 114
3.2.4 Pressure Casting (Wet Pressing) 120
3.2.5 Electrophoretic Casting 124
3.2.6 Injection Molding 128
3.2.7 Extrusion 131
3.2.8 Sol-Gel Processing and Gel Casting 135
3.2.8.1 Sol-Gel Processing 135
3.2.8.2 Gel Casting 136
3.2.9 Tape Casting 139
3.2.10 Centrifugal Casting 143
3.2.11 Other Forming Methods 146
3.2.11.1 Vacuum Casting 146
3.2.11.2 Freeze Casting 146
3.2.11.3 Vacuum Forming/Blow Molding 146
3.3 Conventional Consolidation Methods 147
3.3.1 Solid-State Sintering 146
3.3.1.1 Solid-State Sintering Models 148
3.3.1.2 Effect of Additives, Impurities, and Dispersed Phases on Sintering 155
3.3.1.3 Effect of Green Microstructure 160
3.3.1.4 Effect of Sintering Schedule and Heating Rate 164
3.3.1.5 Effect of Sintering Atmosphere 165
3.3.1.6 Effect of Defect-Generating Treatments 166
3.3.2 Liquid Phase Sintering 167
3.3.3 Hot-Pressing 174
3.4 Modern Production Methods 179
3.4.1 Hot Isostatic Pressing 179
3.4.2 Dynamic Consolidation 181
3.4.3 Reaction-Bonding 184
3.4.4 Plasma Sintering 189
3.4.5 Microwave Sintering 192
3.4.6 Self-Propagating Synthesis 195
3.4.7 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Processes 197
3.4.8 Eutectic Solidification 199
3.4.9 Melt Infiltration 202
3.4.10 Polymer Pyrolysis 202
3.4.11 Biomimetic Processes 205
4 Properties of Ceramic Materials and Their Evaluation 209
4.1 Mechanical Properties 209
4.1.1 Hardness and Elastic Modulus 209
4.1.1.1 Hardness Testing 211
4.1.1.2 Testing of Elastic Modulus 212
4.1.2 Strength 213
4.1.2.1 Strength Testing 213
4.1.2.2 Theoretical Strength 218
4.1.2.3 The Weibull Distribution 219
4.1.2.4 Strength of Monolithic Ceramics 222
4.1.2.5 Strength of Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) 225
4.1.3 Fracture Toughness 236
4.1.3.1 Fracture Toughness Measurement 239
4.1.3.2 Toughening Methods and Mechanisms 244
4.1.3.3 Experimental Studies 260
4.1.4 Thermal Shock Resistance and Thermal Fatigue Resistance 262
4.1.5 Fatigue Resistance 265
4.1.5.1 Test Methods 269
4.1.6 Creep Resistance and Superplasticity 269
4.1.6.1 Creep Resistance 270
4.1.6.2 Superplasticity 275
4.1.7 Abrasive and Sliding Wear Resistance 278
4.1.8 Erosive Wear Resistance 284
4.2 Thermal Properties 287
4.2.1 Heat Capacity 288
4.2.2 Thermal Conductivity 292
4.2.3 Thermal Diffusivity 295
4.2.4 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 296
4.3 Optical Properties 302
4.3.1 Transmittivity and Reflectivity 302
4.3.2 Refractive Index and Dispersion 303
4.3.3 Emissivity 305
4.3.4 Birefringence 309
4.3.5 Color 310
4.4 Electrical Properties 311
4.4.1 Electrical Conduction 311
4.4.1.1 Insulators (Dielectric Materials) 313
4.4.1.2 Semiconductors 315
4.4.1.3 Conductive Ceramics 317
4.4.1.4 Ionic Conduction 318
4.4.1.5 Superconductors 321
4.4.2 Polarization 327
4.4.2.1 Dielectric Constant and Permittivity 329
4.4.2.2 Loss Tangent 330
4.4.2.3 Dielectric Strength 331
4.4.2.4 Capacitors and Capacitance 333
4.4.2.5 Piezoelectricity 335
4.4.2.7 Ferroelectricity 337
4.5 Magnetic Properties 339
4.5.1 Diamagnetic Materials 342
4.5.2 Paramagnetic Materials 342
4.5.3 Ferromagnetic Materials 342
4.5.4 Ferrimagnetic Materials 343
4.5.4.1 Spinel Ferrites 344
4.5.4.2 Garnets 344
4.5.4.3 Hexagonal Ferrites 344
4.5.5 Antiferromagnetic Materials 345
4.6 Corrosion Resistance 346
4.6.1 Introduction 346
4.6.2 Liquid-Ceramic Reactions 350
4.6.2.1 Congruent Dissolution by Simple Dissociation 350
4.6.2.2 Congruent Dissolution by Chemical Reaction with the Solvent 352
4.6.2.3 Incongruent Dissolution Forming Crystalline Reaction Products 352
4.6.2.4 Incongruent Dissolution Forming Noncrystalline Layers 353
4.6.2.5 Ion Exchange 353
4.6.2.6 Kinetics 353
4.6.3 Gas-Ceramic Reactions 354
4.6.4 Corrosion Resistance of Some Important Ceramics 356
4.6.4.1 Al_2O_3 356
4.6.4.2 MgO 357
4.6.4.3 ZrO_2 357
4.6.4.4 AIN 358
4.6.4.5 BN 358
4.6.4.6 Si_3N_4 358
4.6.4.7 SiC 359
4.6.4.8 Glasses 360
4.6.5 Corrosion Testing 361
5 Characterization 363
5.1 Density and Porosity Measurement 363
5.2 Microstructural Analysis 366
5.2.1 Optical Ceramography 366
5.2.1.1 Sample Preparation for Optical Ceramography 366
5.2.1.2 Geometrical Characterization 368
5.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 371
5.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 373
5.2.4 Scanning Probe Microscopy 379
5.2.5 Scanning Ion Microscopy 380
5.3 Diffraction Techniques 381
5.3.1 Electron Diffraction 381
5.3.2 X-Ray Diffraction 384
5.3.3 Neutron Diffraction 388
5.4 Nondestructive Evaluation 389
5.4.1 X-Ray Imaging Techniques 389
5.4.1.1 X-Ray Radiography and X-Ray Microscopy (Microradiography) 389
5.4.1.2 X-Ray Computed Tomography 389
5.4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging 391
5.4.3 Acoustic (Ultrasonic) Imaging Techniques 392
5.4.4 Birefringence 393
5.4.4.1 Optical Birefringence 393
5.4.4.2 Ultrasonic Birefringence 393
5.4.5 Penetrant Techniques 393
5.5 Chemical and Compositional Analysis 394
5.5.1 X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy 394
5.5.1.1 Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis (EPMA) 394
5.5.1.2 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) 394
5.5.1.3 Spectrometers for X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy 395
5.5.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 396
5.5.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 397
5.5.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry 397
5.5.5 Laser Ionization Mass Spectroscopy (LIMS) 398
5.5.6 Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy (RBS) 401
5.5.7 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) 401
5.5.8 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 401
5.5.9 Raman Spectroscopy 403
5.5.10 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 404
6 Applications of Ceramic Materials 407
6.1 Structural Applications 407
6.2 Military Applications 414
6.3 Cutting Tools and Abrasives 415
6.3.1 Cutting Tools 415
6.3.2 Abrasives 418
6.4 Automotive and Aerospace Applications 421
6.5 Refractory Applications 426
6.6 Ceramics for Energy Production 428
6.7 Biotechnological Applications 430
6.8 Electrical, Electronic, and Magnetic Applications 435
7 Structure and Properties of Conventional Ceramics 447
7.1 Unvitrified Pottery 447
7.1.1 Terra-Cotta 447
7.1.2 Earthenware 448
7.2 Whiteware Compositions 448
7.2.1 Tableware 450
7.2.2 Sanitary Ware 452
7.2.3 Wall Tiles 453
7.2.4 Glazes 454
7.2.5 Colorants 456
7.3 Cement 457
7.4 Refractories 461
7.4.1 Compositions and Properties 461
7.4.2 Production of Refractories 462
7.5 Glass 462
7.5.1 Compositions and Properties 462
7.5.2 Production of Glassware 464
Appendix 467
References 553
Subject Index 611
END
