ISBN: 3540677690
TITLE: A Systems Analysis of the Baltic Sea
AUTHOR: Wulff, Fredrik V.; Rahm, Lars A.; Larsson, Per (Eds.)
TOC:

1 Introduction
F. Wulff, L. Rahm, and P. Larsson 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Physical Transports and External Forcing 2
1.3 Critical Processes 3
1.4 Budgets and Models 10
1.5 Conclusions 14
References 15
2 Physical Oceanography of the Baltic Sea
A. Stigebrandt 19
2.1 Objectives of this Chapter 19
2.2 Introduction 20
2.3 Overall Description of the Physical State of the Baltic Sea 31
2.3.1 Salinity 31
2.3.2 Temperature 35
2.3.3 Currents 37
2.4 Water and Heat Budgets 40
2.4.1 Water Budget 40
2.4.2 Heat Budget 42
2.5 Sea Level and its Variability 44
2.5.1 Externally and Internally Forced Sea Level Variability 45
2.5.2 Distribution of Sea Level Variability 47
2.6 Water Exchange Between Basins  Strait Dynamics 48
2.6.1 Barotropic Strait Flows 49
2.6.2 Baroclinic Strait Flows 51
2.6.3 Water Exchange of Fjords, Bays and Archipelagoes 54
2.7 Dynamics of the Surface Layer 56
2.7.1 Annual Cycles 58
2.7.2 Horizontal Diffusion 60
2.8 Dynamics of the Deep Water 62
2.8.1 Inflow of Saline Water to the Baltic Sea 62
2.8.2 Dense Bottom Pools and Bottom Currents in the Baltic Sea 64
2.8.3 Interleaving of Inflows into the Baltic ProperHalocline Ventilation 65
2.8.4 Diapycnal Mixing Beneath the Seasonal Pycnocline 66
References 68
3 Climate and Hydrology of the Baltic Basin
S. Bergstrm, H. Alexandersson, B. Carlsson, W. Josefsson, K.-G. Karlsson, and G. Westring 75
3.1 Climate of the Baltic Basin 75
3.1.1 General Overview 75
3.1.2 Air Temperature 78
3.1.3 Precipitation 86
3.1.4 Winds 90
3.1.5 Cloudiness 91
3.1.6 Radiation 94
3.1.7 Ice Conditions 98
3.2 River Runoff to the Baltic Sea 101
3.2.1 Annual River Runoff to the Baltic Sea 103
3.2.2 Seasonal Contributions from Rivers 107
3.2.3 Monthly Values and Extremes 110
References 110
4 Riverine Inputs of Nutrients to the Baltic Sea
A. Grimvall and P. Stlnacke 113
4.1 Introduction 113
4.2 Databases and Background Documents 114
4.3 Data Quality and Statistical Methods 116
4.4 Total Input of Nutrients to the Baltic Sea 117
4.5 Spatial Distribution of Riverine Loads 118
4.6 Temporal Changes in Total Riverine Input 121
4.7 Temporal Trends in Specific Rivers 123
4.8 Controllability of Riverine Loads of Nutrients 124
4.9 Conclusions 128
References 128
5 Deposition of Nitrate and Ammonium from the Atmosphere to the Baltic Sea
L. Granat 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 Estimation of Wet Deposition 134
5.2.1 Data 134
5.2.2 Data Scrutinization 135
5.2.3 Interpolation 137
5.3 Estimation of Dry Deposition 139
5.3.1 Concentration Data 139
5.3.2 Deposition Velocity 141
5.4 Results and Discussion 142
5.4.1 Uncertainties in Wet Deposition Estimates 145
5.4.2 Comparison with Other Estimates 146
References 147
6 Atmospheric and River Input of PCBs, DDTs and HCHs to the Baltic Sea
C. Agrell, P. Larsson, L. Okla, G. Bremle, N. Johansson, M. Klavins, O. Roots, and A. Zelechowska 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.1.1 The Compounds 150
6.1.2 Transport Processes 151
6.1.3 Transport by Rivers 152
6.1.4 The Study 153
6.2 Material and Methods 154
6.2.1 Air and Precipitation Sampling 154
6.2.2 River Sampling 155
6.2.3 Sample Preparation and Analysis 155
6.2.4 Statistical Analysis 156
6.3 Results and Discussion 158
6.3.1 Concentration of Persistent Pollutants in the Atmosphere 158
6.3.2 Concentrations of Persistent Pollutants in Precipitation 163
6.3.3 Atmospheric Deposition 166
6.3.4 Concentration and Transport of Pollutants in Rivers 169
References 173
7 Pelagic Plankton Growth and Resource Limitations in the Baltic Sea
. Hagstrm, F. Azam, J. Kuparinen, and U.-L. Zweifel 177
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 Ecosystem Structure 178
7.2.1 Microbial Food Web 178
7.2.2 Temporal Changes in the Baltic Ecosystem 180
7.3 Pelagic Production in the Baltic 184
7.3.1 Seasonal Cycles Along the Salinity Gradient 184
7.3.2 Algal and Bacterioplankton Coupling 187
7.3.3 Patchiness; Temporal Versus Spatial Variation 189
7.4 Organic Matter Distribution and Degradation 191
7.4.1 Utilizable Versus Non-degradable Organic Matter 191
7.4.2 The Dissolved Phase in the Baltic 193
7.4.3 Particulate Organic Matter in the Sea 195
7.5 Inorganic Nutrient Limitation 197
7.5.1 State of the Problem 197
7.5.2 Nutrient Limitation Along the Salinity Gradient 199
7.6 Why Cyanobacteria Blooms in the Baltic? 200
7.7 Management of Nutrient Release 203
References 204
8 The Challenge of Sedimentation in the Baltic Sea
S. Blomqvist and A.-S. Heiskanen 211
8.1 Introduction 211
8.2 Retrospect in Brief 211
8.2.1 Annual Dynamics 211
8.3 Current Topics 212
8.3.1 Fate of Phytoplankton Blooms 212
8.3.2 Fecal Material 215
8.3.3 Resuspension 215
8.4 Critical Issues 216
8.4.1 Anthropogenic Elevation of Sedimentation in the Open Baltic Sea? 216
8.4.2 Sequestering of Carbon in Baltic Sea Sediments: A Missing Carbon Sink? 219
8.5 Looking Ahead 222
References 222
9 Role of Sediments in the Nutrient Dynamics of the Baltic
M. Jansson 229
9.1 Introduction 229
9.2 Physical Conditions Affecting Sediment Nutrient Dynamics 230
9.3 Phosphorus Dynamics in Sediments 232
9.4 Character and Turnover of Phosphorus in Sediments of the Baltic Sea 236
9.5 Nitrogen Transformations in Surface Sediments 244
9.6 Nitrogen Turnover in Sediments of the Baltic Sea 245
9.7 Concluding Remarks 251
References 253
10 Dynamics and Distribution of Hydrophobic Organic Compounds in the Baltic Sea
J. Axelman, C. Nf, C. Bandh, R. Ishaq, H. Pettersen,Y. Zebhr, and D. Broman 257
10.1 Introduction 257
10.2 Materials and Methods 261
10.2.1 Sampling 261
10.2.2 Chemical Analysis 263
10.2.3 Statistics 263
10.3 Results and Discussion 264
10.3.1 Concentrations and Phase Distribution of HOCs in Air, Water and Sediments 264
10.3.2 Inputs of HOCs to the Baltic Sea and Exchange Processes Between the Different Compartments 270
10.3.3 A Semi-Empirical Mass Balance of PAHs and PCBs in the Baltic Sea 281
References 284
11 Sediments and Macrofauna in the Baltic Sea  Characteristics, Nutrient Contents and Distribution
R. Carman and H. Cederwall 289
11.1 Introduction 289
11.1.1 Historical Background 291
11.2 Materials and Methods 292
11.2.1 General Considerations 292
11.2.2 Field Methods 309
11.2.3 Laboratory Methods 309
11.3 Results 310
11.3.1 Sediments 310
11.3.2 Macrofauna 312
11.4 Discussion 314
11.4.1 Sediments 314
11.4.2 Macrofauna 321
References 322
12 Statistical Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Variations in the Baltic Sea
L. Rahm and . Danielsson 329
12.1 Introduction 329
12.2 Time Series Analysis 330
12.2.1 Methods 330
12.2.2 Salinity 331
12.2.3 Nutrients 335
12.2.4 Primary Production 342
12.3 Spatial Analysis 343
12.3.1 Differences Between Stations/Basins 344
12.3.2 Spatial Correlation 345
12.3.3 Monitoring Programs 347
12.4 Summary 347
References 349
13 A Nutrient Budget Model of the Baltic Sea
F. Wulff, L. Rahm, A.-K. Hallin, and J. Sandberg 353
13.1 Introduction 353
13.2 Material and Methods 354
13.2.1 Boundaries and Flows 354
13.2.2 Numerical Methods 356
13.2.3 Data 358
13.3 Nutrient Budgets 363
13.3.1 Nitrogen 363
13.3.2 Phosphorus 364
13.3.3 N/P Ratios 366
13.3.4 Silica 367
13.4 Conclusions and Discussion 368
References 371
14 A Model of the Biogeochemical Cycles of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in the Baltic
O. Savchuk and F. Wulff 373
14.1 Introduction 373
14.2 Objectives and Modeling Strategy 374
14.3 Formulations and Realizations 375
14.3.1 Space and Time Scales 375
14.3.2 State Variables and Interactions 376
14.3.3 Biogeochemical Translocations 377
14.3.4 Physical Transports 378
14.3.5 Exchanges Across System Boundaries 379
14.3.6 The System of Equations 380
14.3.7 Parameterization of Biogeochemical Pathways 381
14.3.8 Boundary and Initial Conditions 383
14.4 Results and Discussion 386
14.4.1 Results of the Standard Case 386
14.4.2 Effects of Nutrient Load Reductions 406
14.4 Conclusions 409
References 411
15 A Multicompartment, Multi-Basin Fugacity Model Describing the Fate of PCBs in the Baltic Sea
F. Wania, D. Broman, J. Axelman, C. Nf, and C. Agrell 417
15.1 Introduction 417
15.2 Model Structure 419
15.2.1 Mass Balance for Water 421
15.2.2 Mass Balance for Particulate Organic Carbon 422
15.2.3 Mass Balance for the Persistent Organic Pollutant 426
15.3 PCBs in the Baltic Sea 430
15.3.1 Selection of Input Parameters 430
15.4 Presentation of Model Results 433
15.4.1 Response Times 437
15.5 Evaluation of Model Results 438
15.5.1 Water Concentrations 438
15.5.2 Sediment Concentrations 439
15.5.3 Concentrations in Precipitation 439
15.5.4 Mass Balance of PCBs 439
15.6 Conclusion 440
15.7 Outlook 441
References 444
Subject Index 449
END
