Landolt-Brnstein GROUP VIII
: Advanced Materials and Technologies 
VOLUME 2 
Powder Metallurgy Data SUBVOLUME A1 Metals and Magnets 

Title Page, Authors, Preface 
Title Page 
Preface 
Contributors 

1 Introduction (P. BEISS, R. RUTHARDT, H. WARLIMONT) 1

2 Metal powders (J.J. DUNKLEY, B. MAIS, R. RUTHARDT) 5


2.1
 Introduction 5

2.2
 Production technology 6


2.2.1
 Oxide reduction 6

2.2.2
 Electrolysis 8


2.2.2.1
 Introduction 8

2.2.2.2 
Electrodeposition of copper powder  basic considerations 8

2.2.2.3 
Electrodeposition of copper powder  industrial realisation 10

2.2.2.4 
Further processing steps 11

2.2.3
 Thermal decomposition 12

2.2.4
 Atomisation 13



2.2.4.1
 Basic considerations 14

2.2.4.2 
Gas and air atomisation 17

2.2.4.3
 Water atomisation 27

2.2.4.4 
Economics of atomisation 31

2.2.5
 Alloying methods 34

2.3
 Powder characterisation 34

2.4 
Metal powder types and data 36



2.4.1 
Iron base powders 36

2.4.2 
Copper base powders 41

2.5 
References for 2 44

3 Forming (P. BEISS) 47

3.1
 Introduction 47

3.2 
Uniaxial compaction in rigid dies 47



3.2.1 
Die compaction of powders with green strength 47

3.2.2 
Newer developments and emerging technologies in die compaction 55

3.2.3 
Die compaction with consolidation 55

3.2.4
 Powder forging 57

3.3 
Isostatic and pseudoisostatic compaction 60

3.3.1 
Cold isostatic pressing 60

3.3.2 
Hot isostatic pressing 63

3.3.3
 Pseudo-HIP processes 	65



3.3.3.1
 STAMP process 	65

3.3.3.2 
Consolidation by atmospheric pressure 	66

3.3.3.3 
Rapid omnidirectional compaction 	67

3.3.3.4
 Ceracon process 	68

3.3.3.5 
Ceramic mold process 	69

3.4 
Forming of binder treated powders 	70

3.4.1 
Metal injection molding 	70

3.4.2 
Binder assisted extrusion 	72

3.4.3 
Slip casting and wet powder processing 	73

3.4.4
 Tape Casting 	74

3.5
 Spray forming 	74

3.5.1
 Billets 74

3.5.2 
Claddings and ring shapes 	75

3.5.3 
Preforms, slabs and strips 	76

3.6
 Continuous forming 	76

3.6.1
 Powder rolling 	76

3.6.2
 Conform extrusion 	77

3.7
 Gravity sintering 	78

3.8 
Billet processing and hot working 	79

3.9
 Conclusions 81



3.10 	
References for 3 82

4 Semifinished products 89

4.1 
Hot isostatically pressed tool steels (P. BEISS, G. KIENTOPF) 	89

4.1.1
 Heat treatment 	90

4.1.2
 Alloying effects 	94

4.1.3
 Chemical composition 97

4.1.4
 Microstructure 101

4.1.5
 Mechanical properties 	104

4.1.6
 Physical properties 	114

4.1.7 
References for 4.1 	122

4.2 
Spray forming (K. HUMMERT, H. MLLER, C. SPIEGELHAUER) 	131

4.2.1
 Copper alloys 	132



4.2.1.1 
Materials for sliding applications 	133

4.2.1.2
 Machinable materials 	135

4.2.1.3 
High strength materials 	136

4.2.1.4
 Anisotropy 138

4.2.2.
 Aluminum Alloys 	140

4.2.2.1 
High strength alloys (7xxx series) 	142

4.2.2.2 
Elevated temperature alloys (2xxx series)	143

4.2.2.3 
Wear resistant alloys (4xxx series)	144

4.2.3
 Tool steels 	145

4.2.4 
References for 4.2 	148

5. 
Structural mass production parts (P. BEISS) 	151

5.1
 Introduction 151

5.2
 Manufacturing route 	151

5.3 
Iron and steel 	153



5.3.1
 Raw materials 	153

5.3.2
 Data evaluation 	154

5.3.3
 Elastic properties 	157

5.3.4 
Hardness and tensile properties 	160



5.3.4.1
 Unalloyed iron 	164

5.3.4.2
 Binary alloys 	164

5.3.4.3
 Ternary alloys 	165

5.3.4.4
 Quaternary alloys 	166

5.3.4.5 	
Higher order alloys 167

Fig.
 6 - Fig. 40 169

Fig.
 41 - Fig. 75 204

Fig.
 76 - Fig. 110 239


5.3.5
 Impact Energy 	274

5.3.6
 Fatigue strength 	286



5.3.6.1 
Effect of density in the as-sintered condition 	288

5.3.6.2
 Stress concentrations 	307

5.3.6.3 
Effect of heat treatments 	309

5.3.6.4 
Effect of mean stress 	310

5.3.6.5
 Miscellaneous relationships 	317

5.3.6.6 
Rolling contact fatigue 	319

5.3.7
 Thermophysical properties 	321

5.3.7.1 
Thermal expansion and density 	322

5.3.7.2
 Specific heat 	324

5.3.7.3
 Thermal conductivity 	326

5.3.7.4
 Thermal diffusivity 	329

5.4
 Non-ferrous materials 	331

5.4.1 
Copper and copper alloys 	331

5.4.2
 Aluminum alloys 	337

5.5
 Summary 339

5.6 
References for 5 	340

6 Metal injection moulding (R. MLLER) 	351

6.1
 Introduction 351

6.2
 Technology 352



6.2.0
 Process outline 	352

6.2.1 
Powder and feedstock 	353



6.2.1.1
 Powder 353

6.2.1.2
 Binder systems 	355

6.2.1.3
 Feedstock 355

6.2.2
 Moulding 357

6.2.2.1
 Introduction 357

6.2.2.2
 Moulding equipment 358

6.2.2.3 
Requirements and possibilities 361

6.2.2.4
 Moulding conditions 363

6.2.3
 Debinding 364

6.2.4
 Sintering 366



6.2.4.1
 Introduction 366

6.2.4.2
 Equipment 367

6.2.4.3
 Sinter Regime 367

6.2.5
 Final treatment 369

6.3
 Materials 370

6.3.1
 Properties 370

6.3.2 
Tolerances and criteria of MIM processing 373

6.3.3
 MIM defects 374

6.4
 Applications 375

6.5 
Comparison of technological alternatives 378

6.6 
References for 6 382

7 Powder metallurgical filters (P. BEISS, P. NEUMANN) 383

7.1
 Introduction 383

7.2 
Materials and production of metal filters 383



7.2.1 
Bronze powder products 383

7.2.2 
Stainless steel and nickel base powder products 384

7.2.3 
Stainless steel fiber products 384

7.3 
Characterization of metallic filtration materials 384

7.3.1 
Mechanical strength and density 385

7.3.2
 Permeability 386



7.3.3. 
Average CCE pore diameter 387

7.3.4 
Bubble test pore size 387

7.3.5 
Pore size distribution 387

7.3.6
 Filtration efficiency 388

7.4
 Data 388

7.5 
Tables for 7 390

7.6 
Figures for 7 404

7.7 
References for 7 406

8 Friction materials (L. SCHNEIDER) 407

8.1
 Introduction 407

8.2 
Raw materials used in the production of friction materials 407



8.2.1
 Base materials 408

8.2.1 
Solid state lubricants 408

8.2.3
 Friction modifiers 409

8.3
 Production methods 410

8.3.1
 Pressing techniques 411

8.3.2
 Spreading techniques 412

8.4 
Properties and applications 413

8.4.1 
Friction material requirements 	413

8.4.2 
Methods of friction testing 	413

8.4.3 
Applications under dry condition 	413

8.4.4
 Railway applications 	416

8.4.5 
Applications under wet conditions 	418

8.5 	
References for 8 421

9 Magnetic materials 423

9.1 
Introduction (H. WARLIMONT) 	423

9.2 
Soft magnetic sintered and composite materials (P. JANSSON) 	425



9.2.1
 Introduction 425

9.2.2 
Sintered soft magnetic materials 	425



9.2.2.1 
Sintered soft magnetic iron 	427

9.2.2.2 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/phosphorous 	430

9.2.2.3 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon 	435

9.2.2.4 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon/phosphorous 	437

9.2.2.5 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/tin/phosphorous 	438

9.2.2.6 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/nickel 	439

9.2.2.7 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/ chromium 	440

9.2.2.8 
Sintered soft magnetic iron/cobalt 	441

9.2.2.9
 Processing operations 	442

9.2.3 
Composite soft magnetic materials 	445

9.2.3.1 
Soft magnetic iron composites for low to medium frequency 	447

9.2.3.2
 Soft magnetic composites for medium to high frequency 456

9.2.4 
Soft magnetic ferrites (T. MURASE) 	461

9.3 
Hard magnetic sintered and bonded materials 	467

9.3.1 
Introduction (H. WARLIMONT) 	467

9.3.2
 Alnico 470

9.3.3 
Co-Sm (H. NAGEL) 	472



9.3.3.1 
5/1 type magnets 	475

9.3.3.2 
17/2 type magnets 	477

9.3.4 
Fe - Nd - B 	482

9.3.5 
Mn - Al - C (H. HARADA) 	490


9.3.6. 
Hard magnetic ferrites 	492

9.3.7. 
Bonded magnets (N. HORIISHI, S. TAKARAGI) 	494



9.3.7.1
 Introduction 494

9.3.7.2 
Hexagonal ferrite, MOFe12O18(M:Ba,Sr) base 	497

9.3.7.3
 Nd2Fe14B base 	503

9.3.7.4 
Al-Ni-Fe base isotropic magnets 	504


9.4 
References for 9 	505

10 Contact materials (V. BEHRENS, W. WEISE) 	511

10.1
 Introduction 511

10.2 
Symbols and abbreviations used in chapter 10 	512

10.3 
Composites based on Silver 512


10.3.1 
Silver/nickel and silver/iron 512

10.3.2 
Silver metal oxides 515


10.3.2.1 
Silver/ tin oxide 517

10.3.2.2
 Silver/Cadmium Oxide 518

10.3.2.3
 Silver/zinc oxide 519

10.3.3 
Silver/graphite and copper/graphite 519

10.3.4
 Silver/tungsten, silver/tungsten carbide and silver/molybdenum 521

10.3.5 
Switching behaviour of silver based materials in air 522

10.4 
Composites based on copper 528

10.4.1
 Copper/tungsten 528

10.4.2
 Copper/tungsten carbide 530

10.4.3 
Copper/chromium and copper/iron 530

10.4.4 
Switching behaviour of copper based composites 531



10.4.4.1 
Switching in SF6 atmosphere, oil or air 531

10.4.4.2 
Switching in vacuum 533


10.5 
Composites based on graphite 534

10.5.1
 Sliding contacts 535

10.6
 Pure metals 536

10.7 
References for 10 537


11 Beryllium (D. F. LUPTON) 541

11.1.
 Introduction 541

11.1.1.
 Characteristic properties 541

11.1.2 
Occurrence, refining and production processes 541

11.1.3
 Material classes 542

11.1.4
 Applications 543

11.2
 Data 545

11.3 
Safety and health 550

11.4 
References for 11 551





