Landolt-Brnstein GROUP VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies VOLUME 4 Radiological Protection Title Page, Preface, Authors, Table of Contents 
 Title Page
 Preface 
 Contributors 
 Table of Contents
1 The development of the organizational and the conceptual basis of radiological protection 1 
(A. Kaul, D. Becker)
2 Biological effects of ionising radiation  (J.W. Stather, H. Smith) 5 
2.1 Introduction 5 
2.2 Cellular effects 6 
2.2.1 Primary events following exposure to ionising radiation 6 
2.2.2 Cellular damage and repair following the primary radiation events 7 
2.2.3 Classification of radiation-induced damage 9 
2.2.4 Implications of cellular damage for whole or partial body exposure 13 
2.3 Deterministic effects 13 
2.3.1 Tissue and organ development 13 
2.3.2 Dose-response relationships for radiation damage 14 
2.3.3 Deterministic effects in humans following acute whole-body irradiation 15 
2.3.4 Deterministic effects following partial body irradiation 16 
2.4 Radiation-induced cancer 19 
2.4.1 Cancer development 19 
2.4.2 Dose-response relationships 20 
2.4.3 Exposures to external radiation 22 
2.4.4 Exposure to internally incorporated radionuclides 22 
2.4.5 Dose and dose rate effectiveness factors (DDREFs) 27 
2.4.6 Risk coefficients for protection 27 
2.4.7 Low dose studies 29 
2.5 Hereditary disease 31 
2.5.1 Categories of genetic damage 31 
2.5.2 Risk coefficients for hereditary disease 32 
2.6 Irradiation in utero 33 
2.6.1 Deterministic effects 34 
2.6.2 Brain function 34 
2.6.3 Risk coefficients for cancer 35 
2.6.4 Hereditary disease 35 
2.7 Summary of risk factors for cancer and hereditary disease 36 
2.8 Conclusions 36 
2.9 References 38 
3 Physical fundamentals  (H. Klewe-Nebesius, H.J. Gils) 41 
3.1 Natural radioactivity 41 
3.2 Elements, isotopes and radionuclides 42 
3.2.1 Atoms, electrons and the Periodic Table of Elements 42 
3.2.2 Atomic nuclei, nuclides and the Chart of Nuclides 43 
3.3 The structure of the atomic nucleus 44 
3.3.1 Elementary particles 44 
3.3.2 Nuclear transformations 46 
3.4 Radioactive decay 50 
3.4.1 Basic properties 50 
3.4.2 Decay modes 55 
3.4.3 The natural radioactive decay families 58 
3.5 Radioactive radiation 64 
3.5.1 Types of radiation 64 
3.5.2 Physical properties of radiation 66 
3.6 Nuclear fission and fission products 70 
3.6.1 Particle induced nuclear fission 70 
3.6.2 Fission products 70 
3.6.3 Nuclear reactors 72 
3.6.4 Nuclear explosives 72 
3.6.5 Radioactive inventory and nuclear waste 73 
3.6.6 Release of radionuclides from the radioactive inventory of a nuclear reactor 78 
3.7 References 79 
4 Radiological quantities and units  (G. Dietze) 81 
4.1 Introduction 81 
4.2 Radiation field quantities 82 
4.2.1 Scalar radiation field quantities 82 
4.2.2 Vectorial radiation field quantities 84 
4.3 Interaction coefficients and quantities 85 
4.3.1 Cross section 85 
4.3.2 Mass attenuation coefficient and mass energy transfer coefficient 85 
4.3.3 Mass stopping power and linear energy transfer (LET) 86 
4.3.4 Mean energy expended in a gas per ion pair formed 87 
4.4 Quantities related to energy transfer 87 
4.4.1 Stochastic quantities 87 
4.4.2 Non-stochastic quantities 88 
4.5 Dose quantities in radiation protection 90 
4.5.1 Concept of radiation protection quantities 90 
4.5.2 Protection quantities 91 
4.5.3 Operational quantities 94 
4.6 Radioactivity quantities 98 
4.6.1 Activity, specific activity, activity concentration, activity per area 99 
4.6.2 Specific quantities for radon, thoron and their progeny 99 
4.7 
Quantities for internal dosimetry
102  
4.8 
Limits, constraints, action levels
103  
4.9 
References
107  109  
5 
Shielding against ionizing radiation 
(Y. Harima, K. Hayashi, H.-G. Vogt) 
5.1 
Introduction
109  
5.2 
Stopping power and range
109  
5.3 
Penetration depths of charged particles 110  

5.3.1 
Heavy charged particles 110  

5.3.2 Electrons and positrons 112  
5.4 Photons 113  
5.4.1 Basic shielding concept 113  
5.4.2 Attenuation data of radioactive sources in shielding materials 114  
5.4.3 An example of the calculation of an ambient dose equivalent rate 118  
5.5 Neutrons 124  
5.5.1 Basic shielding concepts 124  
5.5.2 Attenuation data of various neutron sources in shield material 124  
5.5.3 Sample shield calculation 126  
5.5.4 Induced activity 127  
5.6 Computer codes and online nuclear data services 136  
5.7 References 140  
5.8 Appendix 142  
6 External dosimetry  (H. Paretzke, N. Petoussi-Henss) 183  
6.1 Protection and operational quantities 183  
6.1.1 Protection quantities 183  
6.1.2 Operational Quantities 183  
6.2 Dosimetric models 184  
6.2.1 Models and phantoms of the human body 184  
6.2.2 Idealized geometries representing occupational exposures 186  
6.2.3 Environmental source geometries 186  
6.2.4 Methods of calculating protection quantities in computational models 187  
6.3 Conversion coefficients for photons 188  
6.3.1 Occupational 188  
6.3.2 Conversion coefficients for environmental gamma ray fields 195  
6.4 Conversion coefficients for neutrons 202  
6.5 Conversion coefficients for electrons 203  
6.5.1 Occupational exposure 203  
6.5.2 Environmental exposure 205  
6.6 Doses from external exposure of radionuclides in the environment 205  
6.7 References 224  
7 Internal dosimetry of radionuclides (K.F. Eckerman, N. Ishigure, A. Phipps, J.W. Stather) 227  
7.1 Introduction 227  
7.2 Biokinetics of radionuclides in the body 228  
7.2.1 Inhalation 229  
7.2.2 Ingestion 236  
7.2.3 Cuts and wounds 240  
7.2.4 Absorption through intact skin 241  
7.2.5 Systemic behaviour of radionuclides 241  
7.2.6 Excretion 247  
7.2.7 Embryo and foetus 247  
7.2.8 Transfer in maternal milk 250  
7.3 Dosimetric models 251  
7.3.1 Introduction 251  
7.3.2 Absorbed fraction and specific absorbed fraction 252  
7.3.3 Computational models of the human anatomy 254  
7.3.4 Dose rate per unit activity, S-factor 257  
7.3.5 Specific absorbed fractions for various radiations 258  
7.3.6 Calculation of doses to soft tissues and the skeleton 262  

7.4 
7.4.1 
7.4.2 
7.4.3 
7.5 
7.5.1 
7.6 
7.6.1 
7.6.2 
7.6.3 
7.6.4 
7.6.5 
7.7 
7.7.1 
7.7.2 
7.8 
7.9 
8 

8.1 
8.1.1 
8.1.1.1 
8.1.1.2 
8.1.1.3 
8.1.1.4 
8.1.1.5 
8.1.1.6 
8.1.1.7 
8.1.1.8 
8.1.1.9 
8.1.2 
8.1.2.1 
8.1.2.2 
8.1.2.3 
8.1.2.3 
8.1.3 
8.1.3.1 
8.1.3.2 
8.1.3.3 
8.1.3.4 
8.1.3.5 
8.1.3.6 
8.1.3.7 
8.1.3.8 
8.1.3.9 
Dose coefficients Method of calculation Sources of dose coefficients Dose coefficients for selected radionuclides Internal monitoring Methods of individual monitoring Monitoring Programme Need for a monitoring programme Routine monitoring Special or task-related monitoring Confirmatory monitoring Wound monitoring Dose Assessment Estimation of intake and dose Control of worker doses 
263  
264  
267  
269  
272  
273  
277  
277  
277  
278  
278  
278  
279  
279  
280  

Monitoring data for radionuclides (H-3, Co-60, Sr-90, Ru-106, I-131, Cs-134, Cs-137, Ce-281  
144, U-234, Pu-239, Am-241)
References 294  
Decontamination (A. Kaul, M. Lasch) 299  
Decontamination of materials 299  
General approaches to decontamination 300  
Contamination 300  
Characteristics of oxide layer in BWRs and PWRs 300  
Other types of contamination 301  
Decontamination 302  
The use of decontamination in decommissioning 302  
Identification of decontaminable components 303  
Effectiveness of decontamination, decontamination factor 304  
Decontamination techniques (processes) 305  
Decontamination and secondary waste generation 306  
Decontamination techniques for large volume closed systems 306  
Reactor decontamination in BWRs and PWRs 306  
Fuel assemblies and decontamination 310  
Decontamination of sodium cooled systems 310  
Gas cooled reactors (WAGR) 311  
Decontamination techniques for segmented parts 311  
Chemical decontamination 312  
Electrochemical decontamination 313  
Jetting decontamination techniques 316  
Ultrasonic decontamination 317  
Decontamination by foams 319  
Decontamination by gels 319  
Decontamination by pastes 319  
Mechanical decontamination techniques 319  
Decontamination by strippable coatings 320  

8.1.3.10 Melting 320  

8.1.4 Decontamination techniques for building surfaces 320  

8.2 Decontamination of skin 322  

8.2.1 

Introduction 322  
8.2.2 

Transport of radioactive substances via the skin 322  
8.2.2.1 

Anatomy of the skin 322  
8.2.2.2 

Transport procedure 323  
8.2.3 

Skin dose at contamination 323  
8.2.3.1 

Calculation of the equivalent dose to the skin 323  
8.2.3.2 

Equivalent dose rate conversion coefficients 324  
8.2.4 

Decontamination measures 328  
8.2.4.1 

Organisational and preliminary measures 328  
8.2.4.2 

First aid measures of skin decontamination 328  
8.2.4.3 

Specific decontamination procedures 329  
8.2.4.4 

Decontamination of specific body regions and organs 330  
8.2.5 

Procedure at residual contamination and fixing a reference value 330  
8.2.5.1 

Frequency of decontamination steps 330  
8.2.5.2 

Derivation of the reference value for residual contamination 330  
8.3 
References
332  335  
9 
Decorporation of radionuclides  
(G.N. Strandling, D.M. Taylor) 
9.1 	
Introduction
336  
9.2 	
General considerations
336  
9.2.1 
Factors affecting the efficacy of treatment	336  

9.2.2 
Factors influencing treatment decisions	337  

9.2.3 
Decision levels	337  

9.2.4 
Perception of risk and its implications	338  

9.2.5 
Approaches to treatment	339  

9.3 
Methods of treatment	340  

9.3.1 
Non-specific procedures	340  

9.3.2 
Procedures to enhance systemic radionuclide excretion	341  

9.4 
General comments on the efficiacy of chelating agents for the actinides	342  

9.4.1 	
What are the factors that govern the efficacy of chelating agents ? 343  

9.4.2 	
Can the efficacy of treatment be predicted from animal studies ? 343  

9.4.3 	
Are chelating agents always most effective when the radionuclides are present in circulating 343  

blood ?

9.4.4	
Is DTPA effective for all actinides ? 344  

9.4.5	
Will the administration of chelating agents result in enhanced tissue deposition ? 344  

9.4.6 	
Is the administration of sodium carbonate effective for uranium ? 344  

9.4.7 	
Must chelating agents be administered promptly to be effective ? 344  

9.4.8 	
Is intravenous injection the best mode of administration ? 345  

9.4.9 	
How can judgements on efficacy be made ? 345  

9.4.10 	
When should treatment start ? 345  

9.4.11 	
When should treatment stop ? 345  

9.4.12 	
For which materials are chelating agents likely to be effective ? 345  

9.4.13 	
For which materials are chelating agents unlikely to be effective ? 346  

9.4.14 	
Is lung lavage more effective than chelation treatment for inhaled materials ? 346  

9.5 	
Recent developments
347  
9.5.1 	
Plutonium and americium
347  
9.5.2 	
Thorium
347  
9.5.3 	
Uranium
347  
9.6 	
Optimum treatment protocols
348  
9.6.1 Tritium 348  
9.6.2 The alkaline earth elements, strontium, barium and radium 348  
9.6.3 Iodine 350  
9.6.4 Caesium 350  
9.6.5 Plutonium and americium 352  
9.6.6 Thorium 360  
9.6.7 Uranium 361  
9.7 Future research needs 363  
9.8 References 365  
10 Measuring techniques 369  
10.1 Detectors for radiation protection  (G. Brix, W. Weiss) 369  
10.1.1 Overview and general characteristics of radiation detectors 369  
10.1.2 Gas-filled ionization detectors 371  
10.1.2.1 Ionization and gas amplification 371  
10.1.2.2 Ionization chambers 372  
10.1.2.3 Proportional counters 376  
10.1.2.4 Geiger-Mller counters 378  
10.1.3 Scintillation detectors 379  
10.1.4 Semiconductor detectors 382  
10.1.5 Thermoluminescence and radiophotoluminescence detectors 386  
10.1.6 Photographic films 388  
10.1.7 Detectors for neutrons 389  
10.1.8 Biological dosimetry 391  
10.1.9 References for 10.1 393  
10.2 Radiological protection measurements: external exposure  (G. Dietze) 395  
10.2.1 Operational quantities 397  
10.2.2 Reference levels 397  
10.2.3 Types of exposure 397  
10.2.3.1 Occupational exposure 398  
10.2.3.2 Public exposure 398  
10.2.4 Types of monitoring programs 399  
10.2.4.1 Individual monitoring for external exposure 399  
10.2.4.2 Area monitoring for external exposure 399  
10.2.4.3 Calibration 400  
10.2.5 Requirements for individual monitoring of external exposure 401  
10.2.5.1 Operational requirements 402  
10.2.5.2 Accuracy requirement 403  
10.2.6 Personal dosimeters for individual monitoring in different radiation fields 404  
10.2.6.1 Photon dosimetry 404  
10.2.6.2 Beta dosimetry 405  
10.2.6.3 Neutron dosimetry 405  
10.2.6.4 Dosimetry in mixed field situations (photons and neutrons) 406  
10.2.7 References for 10.2 407  
10.3 Radiological protection measurements: internal exposure 409  
10.3.1 Measurement of radon and its progeny (G. Dietze) 409  
10.3.1.1 Measurement of radon in air 412  
10.3.1.2 Measurement of radon progeny in air 415  
10.3.1.3 Measurement of radon in the ground and in water 418  
10.3.1.4 References for 10.3.1 419  
10.3.2 In vivo measurements (H.-R. Doerfel) 420  
10.3.2.1 Introduction 420  
10.3.2.2 Requirements 421  
10.3.2.3 Principles of . spectrometry 424  
10.3.2.4 Equipment 426  
10.3.2.5 Spectrum evaluation 434  
10.3.2.6 Measuring geometries 435  
10.3.2.7 Calibration 439  
10.3.2.8 Uncertainties and detection limits 445  
10.3.2.9 Measurement procedure 447  
10.3.2.10 Quality assurance and control 447  
10.3.2.11 References for 10.3.2 449  
10.3.3 In vitro measurements: excretion analyses  (A. Dalheimer) 451  
10.3.3.1 Introduction 451  
10.3.3.2 Urine samples 451  
10.3.3.3 Faeces samples 452  
10.3.3.4 Exhalation 452  
10.3.3.5 Other biological samples 453  
10.3.3.6 Radiochemical analyses 453  
10.3.3.7 Measuring techniques 456  
10.3.3.8 Quality assurance 459  
10.3.3.9 Examples for dose estimations from in vitro measurements 461  
10.3.3.10 References for 10.3.3 465  
11 Exposures from natural radiation sources (A. Kaul) 467  
11.1 Introduction 467  
11.2 Exposures by cosmic radiation and cosmogenic radionuclides 468  
11.2.1 Origin and kinds of cosmic radiation 468  
11.2.2 Exposures by cosmic radiations 468  
11.3 Terrestrial radiation 470  
11.3.1 External exposures 471  
11.3.2 Internal exposures 472  
11.4 Enhanced exposures form industrial activities 475  
11.5 Worldwide average exposure from natural and man-made sources 476  
11.6 References 478  

