Landolt-Brnstein GROUP VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies VOLUME 3 Energy Technologies SUBVOLUME B Nuclear Energy 
Title pages, Contributors, Preface, Table of contents 
 Title pages 
 Contributors 
Preface 
Table of contents

0 Introduction to nuclear fission and fusion energy technologies (K. HEINLOTH) 1 
1 Nuclear fission energy (K. KUGELER, E. KUGELER, N. PPPE, Z. ALKAN, 3 
W. GRTZ) 
1.1 Principles of fission reactors 3 
1.1.1 The fission process 3 
1.1.2 The controlled chain reaction and the critical arrangement 7 
1.1.3 Principle of a nuclear reactor 11 
1.1.4 Some necessary fundamentals 13 
1.1.4.1 Cross sections 13 
1.1.4.2 Neutron flux and reaction rates 16 
1.1.4.3 Neutron spectrum 16 
1.1.4.4 Diffusion of neutrons 17 
1.1.4.5 Slowing down of neutrons 21 
1.1.4.6 Resonance escape probability 25 
1.1.5 Reactor equations and critical reactors 27 
1.1.5.1 Reactor equations 27 
1.1.5.2 Aspects of criticality 31 
1.1.6 Neutron balance and heat production in an LWR core 33 
1.1.6.1 Neutron balance of the core 33 
1.1.6.2 Heat production in the core 37 
1.1.7 Some aspects of reactor physics 37 
1.1.7.1 Burn-up of fissile materials and build-up of higher isotopes 37 
1.1.7.2 Building up of fission product inventory 39 
1.1.7.3 Xenon and samarium poisoning 42 
1.1.7.4 Reactivity coefficients 47 
1.1.7.5 Time behavior of reactors, kinetic equations 49 
1.1.7.6 Dynamic equations 54 
1.1.7.7 On the importance of fission products in nuclear technology 58 
1.2 Nuclear power plants 61 
1.2.1 Overview of different reactor types 61 
1.2.2 Pressurized water reactors 65 
1.2.2.1 Plant overview 65 
1.2.2.2 
Components of the core 68 

1.2.2.3 
Components of the primary system 70 

1.2.2.4 
Reactor containment 73 

1.2.2.5 
Reactor safety systems 74 

1.2.2.6
 Auxiliary systems 76

1.2.2.7 
Steam turbine plant 76 

1.2.3 
Thermohydraulic aspects of the core and of the fuel elements 79 

1.2.4 
Operating experience 86 

1.2.4.1 
Availability of power plants 86

1.2.4.2 
Release of radioactivity to the environment 87 

1.2.4.3 
Radiation inside nuclear power plants 88 

1.2.4.4 
Fuel handling 90 

1.2.4.5 
Control 93 

1.2.5 
Accidents in the design area 94 

1.2.5.1 
Overview 94 

1.2.5.2 
Loss of coolant 97 

1.2.5.3 
Break of steam generator pipe 99 

1.2.5.4 
Loss of power and failure of turbine 100 

1.2.5.5 
Break of pipes in the secondary system 101 

1.2.5.6 
Loss of a control rod 103 

1.2.5.7 
External events 103 

1.2.6 
Other types of nuclear reactors 108 

1.2.6.1 
Boiling water reactors 108 

1.2.6.2 
CANDU reactors 111 

1.2.6.3 
RBMK reactors 113 

1.2.6.4 
Advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGR) 116 

1.2.6.5 
High temperature reactors 117 

1.2.6.6 
Liquid metal cooled fast breeder reactors (LMFBR) 123 

1.2.6.7 
New concepts in nuclear technology 125 

1.3 
Economic aspects 129 

1.3.1 
Calculation formula for the generating costs of electricity 129 

1.3.2 
Investment costs 131 

1.3.3 
Capital factors 132 

1.3.4 
Hours of full-power operation 134 

1.3.5 
Efficiencies of plants 135 

1.3.6 
Burn-up of nuclear fuel 136 

1.3.7 
Costs of nuclear fuel 137 

1.3.8 
Costs of intermediate storage and final storage of spent fuel or high-level radioactive waste 139 

1.3.9 
Overall nuclear fuel cycle costs 140 

1.3.10 
Personnel costs and costs for auxiliary materials 142 

1.3.11 
Total generating costs of electricity in nuclear power plants 142 

1.3.12 
Comparison of generating costs 143 


1.3.13 
1.4 
1.4.1 
1.4.2 
1.4.3 
1.4.4 
1.4.5 
1.4.6 
1.4.7 
1.5 
2 

External costs 145 

Safety questions 147 

Core melt incidents in light water reactors 147 

Consequences of core melt accidents 152 

New safety requirements for future nuclear power plants 157 

Paths of development of new reactor systems 159 

Reactor system with retention of the molten core 160 

Principles of inherently safe reactors without core melt 164 

Inherently safe high temperature reactors without core melt 173 

References for 1 182 

Risk analyses and protection strategies for the operation of nuclear power plants 186 

(W.
 KRGER, WITH CONTRIBUTIONS FROM J. MERTENS, D. KOGELSCHATZ, 
S.
 CHAKRABORTY) Introduction 186 

Technical fundamentals 187 

Protection strategies 188 

Basic philosophy 188 

Commonly shared principles and future requirements 190 

Future role of probabilistic safety analysis (PSA) 
Methodology of PSA 
Structure and scope 
Basic mathematical techniques 
Fundamentals of Level-1 PSA 
Selection of initiating events 
Event sequence and system modeling 
Data for assessment of frequencies 
Treatment of dependences 
Human actions and reliability 
Level-2 PSA 
Level-3 PSA 
PSA codes 
Treatment of uncertainties 
Expert judgment
Team expertise and quality assurance issues 
Data collection 
PSA applications and results
Status of PSA activities 
Results and insights from Level-1 PSA 
Results and insights from Level-2 PSA 

192 
193 
193 
194 
196 
196 
196 
198 
198 
200 
202 
205 
208 
209 
209 
209 
210 
211 
211 
212 
215 


Results from Level-1 and -2 PSA from a country perspective 217 

Results from Level-3 PSA 218 

Approaches and results of risk comparisons of different electricity-producing systems 219 

Outlook 222 

Appendix 223 



2.8.1 
Appendix for 2.4 223 

2.8.2 
Appendix for 2.5 225 

2.9 
References for 2 232 

3 
Nuclear fuel and fuel cycle (B. BARR) 236 

3.1 
The nuclear fuel cycle(s) 236 

3.2 
Fissile and fertile materials procurement 238 

3.2.1 
Uranium and thorium 238 

3.2.2 
Exploration 241 

3.2.3 
Mining and concentration (milling) 242 

3.2.4 
Sites rehabilitation 243 

3.2.5 
Plutonium 244 

3.2.6 
World uranium resources and market 246 

3.3 
Uranium enrichment 247 

3.3.1 
Principle, cascade, SWU, HEU, LEU 248 

3.3.2 
Enrichment technologies 250 

3.3.2.1 
Gaseous diffusion 251 

3.3.2.2 
Ultra centrifugation 253 

3.3.2.3 
Laser isotopic separation (AVLIS) 254 

3.3.3 
World enrichment capacities and market 255 

3.3.4 
Conversion 256 

3.4 
Fuel fabrication 256 

3.4.1 
Elements of fuel design 256 

3.4.1.1 
Fissile/fertile couple 257 

3.4.1.2 
Fuel material 258 

3.4.1.3 
Cladding materials 258 

3.4.1.4 
Absorber materials 259 

3.4.1.5 
PWR and BWR fuel assemblies 259 

3.4.2 
LWR fabrication technology 260 

3.4.2.1 
Fuel pellet production 260 

3.4.2.2 
Fuel rod fabrication 261 

3.4.2.3 
Assembly 261 

3.4.2.4 
MOX fuel 261 

3.4.3 
LWR fuel fabrication capacity and market 263 

3.4.4 
Other fuel 264 

3.4.4.1 
CANDU 264 

3.4.4.2 
FBR 264 

3.4.4.3 
HTR 265 

3.5 
In-reactor PWR fuel behavior 266 

3.6 
Spent-fuel management 268 

3.6.1 
Disposal or reprocessing and recycle 268 

3.6.2 
Reprocessing technology 269 

3.6.2.1 
PUREX 269 

3.6.2.2 
Waste management 271 

3.6.2.3 
Other processes 272 

3.6.3 
Reprocessing capacities and market 272 

3.6.4 
Final repository 273 

3.6.5 
Partitioning and transmutation 274 

3.7 
Economics 275 

3.8 
References for 3 277 

4 
Radionuclides in the environment (H.G. PARETZKE, J.E. TURNER) 278 

4.1 
Introduction 278 

4.2 
Radioactivity and radionuclides 278 

4.2.1 
Atoms and energy 278 

4.2.2 
Transitions of atoms: radioactivity 279 

4.2.3 
Radiation emitted in transitions 279 

4.2.4 
General relevancy of radionuclides in the environment 280 

4.3 
Natural radionuclides in the environment 281 

4.3.1 
Cosmogenic isotopes 281 

4.3.2 
Primordial isotopes 282 

4.3.3 
Technical radionuclides in the environment 285 

4.3.3.1 
Nuclear fuel cycles 285 

4.3.3.2 
Fossil fuel 286 

4.4 
Major radioactive releases 286 

4.5 
Interactions of ionizing radiation with matter 290 

4.5.1 
Photons 290 

4.5.2 
Beta particles 291 

4.5.3 
Alpha particles 291 

4.5.4 
Neutrons 291 

4.5.5 
Dosimetry 292 

4.6 
Radiation exposures from natural and artificial radiation sources 293 

4.7 
Radiation measurements 295 

4.7.1 
General methods 295 

4.7.2 
Alpha particles 295 

4.7.3 
Beta particles 296 

4.7.4 
Photons 296 

4.7.5 
Neutrons 297 

4.8 
Biological radiation effects on humans 298 

4.8.1 
Acute and teratogenic radiation effects 298 

4.8.2 
Stochastic late and genetic effects 299 

4.9 
Biological radiation effects on biota 300 

4.9.1 
Historical development 300 

4.9.2 
Effects on plants 301 

4.9.3 
Effects on animals 302 

4.10 
References for 4 302 

5 
Controlled nuclear fusion: general aspects (E. REBHAN, D. REITER, R. WEYNANTS, 304 

U.
 SAMM, W.J. HOGAN, J. RAEDER, T. HAMACHER) 
5.1 
Fusion processes (E. Rebhan) 304 

5.1.1 
Introduction 304 

5.1.2 
Binding energy of nuclei 304 

5.1.3 
Fusion reactions 306 

5.1.4 
Reaction cross-sections and reaction rates 307 

5.2 
Operational conditions and balances (D. Reiter) 310 

5.2.1 
Introduction 310 

5.2.2 
Fusion power density 310 

5.2.3 
The fusion energy gain factor G and the power gain factor Q 310 

5.2.4 
Break-even, ignition 311 

5.2.5 
Power balances for magnetically confined plasmas 312 

5.2.6 
The Lawson criterion 312 

5.2.7 
Power balances for inertial confinement systems 313 

5.2.8 
Burn-up fraction 313 

5.2.9 
ICF reactor balance 314 

5.2.10 
Spark ignition 314 

5.3 
Main principles of a fusion reactor (R. Weynants) 315 

5.3.1 
Introduction 315 

5.3.2 
Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) 316 

5.3.2.1 
Principles of confinement by magnetic fields 316 

5.3.2.2 
Main magnetic confinement configurations 317 

5.3.2.3 
Outline of an MF reactor 319 

5.3.3 
Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) 321 

5.3.3.1 
Main inertial confinement principles 321 

5.3.3.2 
Main inertial confinement configurations 322 

5.3.3.3 
Outline of an inertial confinement reactor 323 

5.4 
Reactor technology for magnetic confinement (U. Samm) 324 

5.4.1 
First wall and high heat flux components 325 

5.4.2 
Systems for heating, current drive, profile control and refueling 328 

5.4.3 
Blanket, shield, and energy conversion system 331 

5.4.4 
Fuel cycle 333 

5.4.5 
Magnet systems 333 

5.4.6 
Remote handling 335 

5.5 
Reactor technology for inertial confinement (W.J. Hogan) 336 

5.5.1 
Introduction 336 

5.5.2 
Targets 337 

5.5.3 
Drivers 340 

5.5.4 
Target fabrication and positioning systems 341 

5.5.5 
Reaction chamber systems 343 

5.5.6 
Balance-of-plant systems 346 

5.5.7 
Special design issues 347 

5.6 
Safety and environmental aspects of magnetic confinement systems (J. Raeder) 348 

5.6.1 
Introduction 348 

5.6.2 
The safety characteristics of magnetic confinement fusion 349 

5.6.3 
Safety concept 349 

5.6.3.1 
Safety objectives 349 

5.6.3.2 
Safety principles 350 

5.6.3.3 
Criteria and guidelines 350 

5.6.3.4 
Implementation of safety 351 

5.6.4 
Plant models 352 

5.6.5 
Safety-relevant inventories 352 

5.6.6 
Normal operation effluents 353 

5.6.7 
Personnel safety 353 

5.6.8 
Accidents 353 

5.6.9 
Radioactive materials 355 

5.6.10 
Proliferation 356 

5.6.11 
Conclusions 357 

5.7 
Fusion resources (T. Hamacher) 357 

5.7.1 
Introduction 357 

5.7.2 
Fusion plant material requirement 359 

5.7.3 
Fusion fuels 360 

5.7.3.1 
Deuterium 360 

5.7.3.2 
Lithium 360 

5.7.4 
Construction materials 361 

5.7.4.1 
Neutron multipliers (beryllium and lead) 361 

5.7.4.2 
Niobium for magnets 361 

5.7.4.3 
Vanadium as structural material 361 

5.7.4.4 
Wall armors 361 

5.7.4.5 
Copper 362 

5.7.5 
Operation materials 362 

5.7.6 
Energy requirements 363 

5.7.7 
Summary and conclusions 363 

5.8 
References for 5 364 

6 
Magnetic confinement fusion: tokamak (D. CAMPBELL) 369 

6.1 
Introduction 369 

6.2 
The tokamak configuration 371 

6.2.1 
Tokamak equilibrium 371 

6.2.2 
Plasma equilibrium parameters 373 

6.2.3 
Particle orbits 375 

6.2.4 
Plasma resistivity 376 

6.3 
Auxiliary systems 378 

6.3.1 
Heating and current drive systems 378 

6.3.2 
Fueling and exhaust 380 

6.3.3 
Diagnostics 382 

6.4 
Transport and confinement 382 

6.4.1 
Elementary transport processes 382 

6.4.2 
Plasma confinement modes 384 

6.5 
Magnetohydrodynamic (mhd) stability 388 

6.5.1 
Essential principles 388 

6.5.2 
Vertical instability 388 

6.5.3 
Disruptions 389 

6.5.4 
Operational limits 390 

6.5.5 
Mhd instabilities 392 

6.6 
Plasma-surface interactions 393 

6.6.1 
Power and particle control 393 

6.6.2 
Plasma boundary issues 394 

6.6.3 
Divertor experiments 396 

6.7 
Steady-state operation 397 

6.8 
Energetic particle physics 399 

6.8.1 
Energetic particle confinement 399 

6.8.2 
Energetic particle interactions with mhd instabilities 401 

6.9 
Tokamak experiments 402 

6.9.1 
Present status 402 

6.9.2 
Deuterium-tritium experiments 405 

6.10 
ITER and tokamak power plants 407 

6.10.1 
ITER 407 

6.10.2 
Tokamak power plants 410 

6.11 
References for 6 414 

7 
Magnetic confinement fusion: stellarator (H. WOBIG, F. WAGNER) 418 

7.1 
Introduction 418 

7.2 
Survey of stellarator reactor studies 419 

7.3 
Coil configurations 423 

7.3.1 
Continuous coil stellarators 424 

7.3.2 
Torsatron configurations 425 

7.3.3 
The Heliac concept 426 

7.3.4 
Modular coil systems 427 

7.4 
Physics basis of the stellarator reactor 428 

7.4.1 
Requirements on reactor physics 428 

7.4.2 
Plasma equilibrium 430 

7.4.3 
The role of Pfirsch-Schlter currents 432 

7.4.4 
Classical diffusion and Pfirsch-Schlter currents 433 

7.4.5 
Stability of stellarator equilibria 433 

7.4.6 
Particle orbits in stellarators 434 

7.4.7 
Neoclassical transport in stellarators 435 

7.4.8 
The bootstrap current 437 

7.4.9 
Principles of optimization in stellarators 437 

7.4.10 
Alpha-particle confinement 438 

7.4.11 
Distortion of the magnetic field 439 

7.4.12 
The divertor in the stellarator reactor 439 

7.4.13 
Anomalous transport in stellarator reactors 440 

7.4.14 
Empirical scaling laws and ignition 441 

7.5 
Economic aspects of a stellarator reactor 443 

7.5.1 
Wall loading 443 

7.5.2 
Blanket systems in stellarator reactors 445 

7.5.3 
Thermal cycle 445 

7.5.4 
Safety of stellarator reactors 447 

7.5.4.1 
Energy reservoir 447 

7.5.4.2 
Tritium inventory 448 

7.5.4.3 
Decay heat 448 

7.5.5 
Balance of mass and cost analysis 449 

7.6 
References for 7 450 

8 
Inertial confinement fusion: laser (W.J. HOGAN) 453 

8.1 
Introduction 453 

8.2 
Target types most suitable for laser drivers 457 

8.3 
Laser drivers: KrF, solid state 461 

8.3.1 
KrF lasers 461 

8.3.1.1 
Timescale issues 462 

8.3.1.2 
Beam smoothing 462 

8.3.1.3 
Pulse shaping and zooming 463 

8.3.1.4 
Electron beam propagation and energy deposition efficiency 463 

8.3.1.5 
Advanced pulsed power development 465 

8.3.1.6 
Gas recirculation system 465 

8.3.1.7 
Platforms for KrF laser research and development 466 

8.3.1.8 
System efficiency 466 

8.3.2 
Diode-pumped solid state lasers (DPSSL) 468 

8.3.2.1 
Timescale issues 469 

8.3.2.2 
Beam smoothing issues 470 

8.3.2.3 
Two approaches to DPSSL design and development 471 

8.3.2.4 
Diode array development and cost reduction issues 472 

8.3.2.5 
Laser medium growth 474 

8.3.2.6 
Repetition rate and amplifier cooling issues 475 

8.3.2.7 
Test beds for DPSLL development 475 

8.4 
Fast ignition lasers for laser-driven IFE 478 

8.5 
Reaction chamber and target positioning issues for laser IFE 480 

8.6 
Final optics issues for laser IFE 483 

8.7 
Development path for laser IFE 490 

8.8 
References for 8 492 

9 
Inertial confinement fusion: z-pinch (C.L. OLSON) 495 

9.1 
Introduction 495 

9.2 
Pulsed power drivers for z-pinch IFE 497 


2.1 
2.2 
2.3 
2.3.1 
2.3.2 
2.3.3 
2.4 
2.4.1 
2.4.2 
2.4.3 
2.4.3.1 
2.4.3.2 
2.4.3.3 
2.4.3.4 
2.4.3.5 
2.4.4 
2.4.5 
2.4.6 
2.4.7 
2.4.8 
2.4.9 
2.4.10 
2.5 
2.5.1 
2.5.2 
2.5.3 
2.5.4 
2.5.5 
2.6 
2.7 
2.8 
9.2.1 
9.2.2 
9.2.3 
9.2.4 
9.3 
9.3.1 
9.3.2 
9.4 
9.4.1 
9.4.2 
9.5 
9.6 
9.7 
9.8 
10 

Marx generator/water line pulsed power technology 497 

RHEPP (magnetic switching, inductive voltage adder) technology 499 

Linear Transformer Driver technology 501 

Z-pinch drivers for high-yield (~ 0.5 GJ) facilities 503

Standoff: Recyclable Transmission Lines 504 

MITL (Magnetically-Insulated Transmission Line) 504 

RTL (Recyclable Transmission Line) 505 

Z-pinch targets 509 

Fast z-pinches as intense soft X-ray radiation sources 510 

Z-pinch driven targets 513 

Z-pinch power plant concept for IFE 516 

IFE materials testing on pulsed power facilities 520 

Status and development plans for z-pinch IFE 522 

References for 9 526 

Inertial confinement fusion: heavy ions (R.M. BOCK, I. HOFMANN, 529 

D.H.H.
 HOFFMANN, G. LOGAN) 
Introduction 529 

Target physics 530 

Interaction of heavy ions with matter 530 

Basic issues of IFE target development for heavy ion beams 532 

Physics of dense plasmas and fast ignition 533 

Conclusions 534 

Heavy ion driver concepts 535 

Introduction 535 

Basic principles 535 


Requirements for fusion energy production 535 

Intense heavy ion beams 536 

Driver scenarios 537 

RF linac and storage ring systems 537 

Induction linac scenario and component development 539 

The inertial fusion reactor 543 

Introduction 543 

Systems overview 544 

Reactor chamber design 545 

Chamber and jet array system, clearing and condensation 545 

Target injection 547 

Tritium technology and facilities 547 

Materials and molten-salt technology 547 

Neutronics and activation of materials, safety aspects 548 

Power plant parameters and economic analysis 550 

Conclusions 550 

References for 10 552 



11 
Muon-catalyzed fusion (CF) (K. NAGAMINE) 555

11.1 
Introduction 555 

11.2 
Basic properties of muons 555 

11.3 
Accelerator-produced muons 556 

11.4 
Muons inside matter and muonic atoms 560 

11.5 
Basic concept of muon catalysis of nuclear fusion 562 

11.6 
Experimental arrangements 565 

11.7 
Fusion reaction in a small muonic molecule 567 

11.8 
Muonic atom thermalization and muon transfer among hydrogen isotopes 570 

11.9 
Formation of muonic molecules 572 

11.10 
Muon sticking and regeneration in the CF cycle 578

11.11 
The He impurity effect 584 

11.12 
Applications of CF 587

11.12.1 
A practical energy source using CF 587

11.12.2 
A 14 MeV neutron source using CF 591

11.12.3 
Slow-- generation via CF 591

11.12.4 
Power generation at the kW level before 2010 592 

11.13 
Conclusions and future perspectives 592 

11.14 
Concluding remarks on a possible CF power plant 593

11.15 
Appendix 594 

11.15.1 
Numerical data on D-T CF 594

11.15.1.1 
(dt) formation rate 594

11.15.1.2 
Muon loss rate and X-rays from sticking 595 

11.15.2 
Numerical data on D2 CF 598

11.15.2.1 
(dd) formation rate and hyperfine transition rate .hf 598

11.16 
References for 11 599 


10.1 
10.2 
10.2.1 
10.2.2 
10.2.3 
10.2.4 
10.3 
10.3.1 
10.3.2 
10.3.2.1 
10.3.2.2 
10.3.3 
10.3.3.1 
10.3.3.2 
10.4 
10.4.1 
10.4.2 
10.4.3 
10.4.3.1 
10.4.3.2 
10.4.3.3 
10.4.3.4 
10.4.4 
10.4.5 
10.4.6 
10.5 
